education. (Terenzini, Rendon, Upcraft, Millar, Gregg, and Jalomo (1994) and Giddan (1998).
2.1 Why at-risk students demonstrate a lack of academic resilience despite being personally resilient.
From the interviews with the participants, the researcher identified five interconnected factors that add to placing resilient students academically at-risk.
2.1.1 Language
“Do you have difficulty with English as a language? “[Smiling] I’m trying”
Despite numerous efforts to encourage bilingualism in South Africa’s educational system, language remains a problem in the academic arena (Umalusi, 2004). English is not the mother tongue of the participants who took part in this study, however, their resilience in trying to overcome this barrier was noticeable. Instruction and learning material (including formative and summative assessments) at the institution were offered in English only. The medium of instruction was thus recognised as a collective risk factor for all participants.
The ability to interpret and speak English is not always sufficient to comprehend complex text and academic terminology (Agar, 1990). Students have to understand what they are reading and be able to recognise academic arguments (Council of higher education, 2013). During the interviews, the participants found it difficult to express themselves and articulate answers to the interview questions. They frequently used resonances like [umm] and for some participants the researcher had to rephrase questions several times before they were able to understand the question. In a classroom environment this would impact on student learning. Oftentimes, students tends to refrain from partaking actively in class discussions or learning activities, because they find it too difficult to formulate questions or to carry their points across (Agar, 1990 and Naude et al., 2005).
A further related finding that link to the above, was that students’ comprehension of English and their ability to articulate in English was evidently on different competency
120 levels. High schools did not always develop and expose students in the same manner to second language education due to multiple reasons, for example: standards of teaching at the school, resources available and teachers who are not English subject specialists. Some students entering higher education understood and could speak English with more confidence than others. This led them to think they are more competent in English, simply, because they could speak, interpret and comprehend the language. This finding concurs with research about students who over-estimate their own abilities and display poorer judgement as they do not take into account the degree of difficulty of natural processes or tasks. (Thorpe, Snell, Hoskins and Bryant, 2007).
These students perceive themselves as adept in the language and superior to other students less articulated or proficient. One of the participants said that when she was in class, she felt as if she did not possess the freedom to ask a question, because when she did, the other students who perceived themselves as more proficient in English, would react negatively towards her question. It made her feel uncomfortable. This can be linked directly to academic self-concept: if a student feels negative about his or her ability to speak English, it will influence their behaviour as they would feel reluctant to speak in class (Hau and Kong, 2002, cited in Green, Nelson, Martin, and Marsh, 2006, and Falchikov and Boud, 1989, cited in Chevalier et al., 2007).
The outcome of this scenario is that students who perceive themselves as more proficient and feel more confident in practicing the language, would be more inclined to actively partake in class discussions or ask questions. For them, this presents an opportunity to develop their competencies with the language. On the other hand, less proficient students would then fall further behind in acquiring their linguistic communication skills and as a result, began to feel less confident.
In a South African context, it is also true that English is in many instances, the second or third language of teachers or lecturers. According to Agar (1990), one student claimed that the learners could not complete their matric English syllabus because their teacher could not explain some of the learning material, simply because the teacher was not confident in speaking English. The result of such a situation is often the promotion of rote-learning, which in turn affects students’ participation in the classroom.
121 Conversely, if the lecturer in class is an English first language person and does not take into account that not all of the students in the class is adept in English and that the students may find it hard to follow the lecture, this would impact on students’ learning (Agar, 1990). Martha Qorro (2006) states the following:
“Just as a pipe is an important medium in carrying water, and a copper wire an important medium for transmitting electricity, the language of instruction is an indispensable medium for carrying, or transmitting education from teachers to learners and among learners.”
As the participants demonstrated, students can be resilient in their own personal lives, but if they do not follow or understand the lecturer, they are immediately exposed to an at-risk factor. Moreover, if a resilient student finds it challenging to apply the institution’s instructional language in an academic setting, the probability that the student will succeed academically, is minimised.
An undeniable relationship exists between language proficiency and academic literacy. For students to show evidence of learning that took place in their own sphere, they have to use reading and writing to construct meaning (Council of higher education, 2013).
2.1.2 Student Motivation
In an academic setting, both extrinsic and intrinsic, motivation is an important component to academic success. Extrinsic motivation is present when behaviour is driven by external encouragement to achieve certain conclusions, while intrinsic motivation derived from within an individual, is not linked to an external stimulus. The individual’s interest and enjoyment play a key role (Ryan and Deci, 2000).
The participants in this study embarked on higher education with the aim of obtaining a qualification and an expectation that this will secure employment and financial stability. They were mostly motivated by this external need. Thus, it is clear that extrinsic motivation played the most important contributing factor in their decision to embark onto higher education.