Transferencias por Regímenes jubilatorios

Ghana is located in one of the world’s most complex climate change regions. At the intersection of three hydro-climatic zones, and subject to the impact of El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO), the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) and West Africa monsoon, the country is highly vulnerable to climate change, variability and uncertainty.

The increase in the frequency and intensity of rainfall, floods and landslides, along with the occurrence of extended periods of drought, intense temperatures and heat, have been linked to changing climatic patterns. Such extreme and unpredictable events have devastating consequences for Ghana’s socio- economic development and food security, particularly for millions of people whose livelihoods depend on agriculture and livestock.

The intensification of extreme weather events such as excessive rainfall has led to the overflow of Ghana’s major water bodies. For example, for the first time in twenty years, the level of the Akosombo Dam Reservoir, which provides electricity to Ghana and its neighbouring West African countries including Benin and Togo, rose to 274.8 ft, close to the maximum of 278 ft in 2010. Consequently, regions which have communities close to the Volta River or lying along the path of the river towards the south of the Hydro- Electric Power Generator were flooded. It is estimated that in 2010, over 377,652 people were internally displaced due to the floods, one of the most severe catastrophes that Ghana has ever had to face. The consequences were even more severe considering that some areas which were affected by the Akosombo spillage had already been hit by flood waters from the Bagre and Kompeanga dams in neighbouring Burkina Faso. According to the Volta River Authority (VRA), there are significant possibilities that the floods will reoccur if erratic rainfall patterns continue.

As in the case of other developing countries, the impacts of climate change and variability in Ghana contribute to intensify the pre-existing challenges of poverty and rural marginalization, rapid urbanization and growth of informal settlements, land depletion and fragile ecosystems, among others40.

While the future projected changes in the climate are still uncertain, studies41 suggest a temperature increase between 1.0 to 3.0°C by the 2060s, and 1.5 to 5.2°C by the 2090s, as well as severe changes in seasonality, among others (Box 10).

Box 10. Climate change projections in Ghana

• Temperature

The mean annual temperature is projected to increase by 1.0 to 3.0°C by the 2060s, and 1.5 to 5.2°C by the 2090s. The range of projections by the 2090s under any one emissions scenario is around 1.5-2.5°C. The projected rate of warming is most rapid in the northern inland regions of Ghana than the coastal regions. All projections indicate substantial increases in the frequency of days and nights that are considered ‘hot’ in current climate, but the range of projections between different models is large.

• Precipitation

Projections of mean annual rainfall averaged over the country from different models suggest a wide range of changes in precipitation for Ghana, with around half the models projecting an increase, and half projecting a decrease.

• Other information

The coastal regions of Ghana may be vulnerable to sea-level rise. Sea-level rise in this region is projected to rise by the following levels by the 2090s, relative to 1980-1999 sea-level:

– 0.13 to 0.43 m, or – 0.16 to 0.53 m, or – 18 to 0.56 m

Source: C. McSweeney, M. New and G. Lizcano (2011), UNDP Climate Change Country Profiles: Ghana

http://ncsp.undp.org/document/undp-climate-change-country-profile-11

Ultimately, the fact that Ghana is projected to “become hotter and wetter during the wet season and drier

during the dry season, with increased sea level rise and storm surges”42 evidences the high degree of the country’s vulnerability in both inland and coastal areas. This heightened vulnerability can be illustrated through a number of examples linked to the different geographic areas of the country, its economic sectors, vulnerable groups or resources, among others.

The following sectoral examples illustrate the complexity of the challenges posed by climate change in Ghana:

a) Agriculture and food security

Considering that approximately 70 per cent of the population depends directly or indirectly on agriculture (e.g., fisheries, crop and animal farming, etc.) as well as on the forest sector for timber and non- timber products, agriculture and food security are particularly vulnerable to climatic changes and extremes. Key economic assets such as cocoa, seed cotton, tobacco, maize, coconut and bananas, among others, are subject to shifting climatic trends and unpredictability, and thus, their affectation (in particular that of cereals that are not tolerant to drought) compromises the main source of livelihoods of the majority of Ghana’s population.

b) Water resources

Due to Ghana’s high dependency on natural resources, an increasing population growth rate and urbanization patterns, water resources are facing significant challenges with the advent of more frequent and intense climatic events. Periods of drought and flooding pose stress on the availability of water for domestic use, which in turn has been linked to the spread of diseases, negative impacts on industrial applications, hydro-electric generation, and food security.

c) Health

The deterioration of health conditions is closely linked to higher incidence of diseases that are carried in the water, food or air. According to a study commissioned by The World Bank, increased heat stress and drought-related deaths in both humans and livestock are already occurring in the extreme north of Ghana43. Further risks are related to the higher incidence of malaria and parasitic infections that are linked to flooding.

In spite of the existence of common sectoral challenges, it is important to note that climatic impacts are not uniform across the country, adding to the complexity of adaptation challenges. Research has identified that current climatic changes and variability have different effects on diverse ecological zones in Ghana’s. Areas such as savannah, transition and coastal areas face distinctive vulnerabilities and climatic priorities, as reflected in Table 4.

Table 4. “Some prevailing climatic impacts in three ecological zones in Ghana”

Savannah Transition Coastal

Stormy weather and destruction Reduced water volume Massive erosion displacing

settlements Top soil erosion and soil infertility Changes in rainfall patterns, affecting

planting seasons

Dwindling fishing stock Increased food insecurity and

malnutrition

Water stress affecting soil fertility Drastic reduction in the volume of

water Increasing conflicts around

resources such as land

Thick forests transiting into shrubs Severe flooding along urban cities and

towns

Increased migration Extreme heat and waterborne

diseases increased

Nexus of poverty, poor infrastructure and climate impacts

Source: Yaro, J. (2010). p. 25.

These examples, among others that have been identified through recent studies in the field (including climatic effects on biodiversity and natural resources, transportation and infrastructure), indicate that climate change can significantly impair Ghana’s development aspirations. Thus, efforts aimed at improving the country’s capacity to withstand, recover and adjust to the effects of climate change, are being undertaken at the highest political level.

The following section presents the main policies and strategies that Ghana has implemented in the climate change adaptation field. An overview of Ghana’s adaptation policies will allow situating the role and potential of ICT tools in climate change strategies, which will be the focus of subsequent sections of the report.