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Hypothesis 1: (1a) White and (1b) Asian students comprise a smaller percentage of easy way outs compared to other races.

The first demographic hypothesis to be tested is that white and Asian students comprise a smaller percentage of easy way outs compared to other races. This hypothesis is based on prior research that suggests that whites are more likely to have greater access to important forms of capital that will increase their levels of school engagement. These forms of capital include learn-

ing resources, encouragement, parental support (Haveman and Wolfe 1994; Downey, Ainsworth- Darnell and Dufur 1998; Rothstein 2004; Rumberger 2004), and attending schools with greater resources (Cummins 1986; MacLeod 1995; Descenes et al., 2001; Witherspoon and Schissel 2001; Cassidy and Bates 2005) while also experiencing lower levels of racial and cultural oppo- sition compared to non-white students (Ogbu 1978, 1991a, 1991b, 1992; Fordham and Ogbu 1986; Lawrence 1997). The expectation that Asian students are less likely than other minorities

Table 4.2 Sample Counts across Early Graduate Groups Easy Way Outs Early Escape- es Earnest Achiev- ers Under- achiever Passives Medi- ocre Pas- sives Early Grad Groups Sum Share of Early Grad-

uates 28% 20% 14% 22% 16% 100% Gender Female 24% 23% 8% 23% 22% 100% Male 30% 20% 18% 19% 13% 100% Race Asian 23% 13% 30% 23% 10% 100% Hispanic 23% 15% 17% 26% 19% 100% Black 24%a 16% 6% 30% 24% 100% White 31% 27% 10% 16% 16% 100% Native American 40% 0% 0% 40% 20% 100% Multi Race 20% 20% 32% 12% 16% 100% Parents Mom + Dad 25% 21% 15% 21% 18% 100% Mom + Man 32% 19% 11% 19% 18% 100% Dad + Woman 17% 39% 4% 17% 22% 100% Other Family 29% 24% 12% 35% 0% 100% Just Mom 31% 22% 12% 16% 19% 100% Just Dad 29% 14% 19% 29% 10% 100% Region Northeast 25% 15% 6% 31% 23% 100% Midwest 17% 27% 13% 18% 25% 100% South 34% 18% 13% 22% 13% 100% West 26% 21% 19% 23% 10% 100% Neighborhood Urban 24% 19% 17% 24% 15% 100% Suburban 26% 24% 14% 18% 18% 100% Rural 40% 13% 5% 28% 14% 100%

Source: National Center for Education Statistics Education Longitudinal Survey 2002/04 Data Files and Electronic Codebook System, First Follow-Up.

to leave school with a GED is based on prior research that suggests that there is a cultural belief among many Asian families that stresses the importance of a student’s effort and the linkages of education with positive future outcomes (Steinberg, Dombush and Brown 1992; Rumberger 2004).

Hypothesis 2: (2a) White and (2b) Asian students comprise a higher percentage of earnest achievers compared to other races.

The second hypothesis to be tested is that white and Asian students comprise a higher percentage of earnest achievers compared to other races. This second hypothesis is essentially the corollary of the first hypothesis, and is grounded in the expectation that the same forms of capital that would reduce the likelihood of a student leaving school with a GED could also be leveraged to support an aggressive graduation with a diploma. Based on prior research, I expect white and Asian students to be more likely to have better access to pro-learning support at home such as books, computers, parental supervision and encouragement than students from other ra- cial groups (Haveman and Wolfe 1994; Downey, Ainsworth-Darnell and Dufur 1998; Rothstein 2004; Rumberger 2004). Whites are also expected to be more likely to attend schools with greater resources per student (Cummins 1986; MacLeod 1995; Descenes et al., 2001; With- erspoon and Schissel 2001; Cassidy and Bates) while also experiencing lower levels of racial and cultural opposition compared to non-white students (Ogbu 1978, 1991a, 1991b, 1992; Fordham and Ogbu 1986; Lawrence 1997). This Asian student expectation is based on prior research that suggests there is a cultural belief among many Asian families that emphasizes the importance of a student’s effort and the linkages of education and positive future outcomes (Steinberg, Dom- bush and Brown 1992; Rumberger 2004).

Hypothesis 3: Earnest achievers will have the highest percentage of two parent households com- pared to the other early graduate groups.

This third hypothesis is based on prior research that links two parent households with a stu- dent having greater access to parental support, guidance, encouragement (Haveman and Wolfe 1994; Rothstein 2004; Rumberger 2004), economic resources, access to better schools (Cum- mins 1986; Haveman and Wolfe 1994; MacLeod 1995; Downey, Ainsworth-Darnell and Dufur 1998; Descenes, Cuban and Tyack 2001; Witherspoon and Schissel 2001; Rothstein 2004; Rumberger 2004; Cassidy and Bates 2005) and more parental involvement with the student’s teachers (McNeal 1999).

Hypothesis 4: Early escapees will have the highest percentage of urban students compared to the other early graduate groups.

The fourth hypothesis is that early escapees will have the highest percentage of urban students compared to the other early graduate groups. This expectation is based on prior research that links urban schools (and perhaps rural schools as well) with less funding per student com- pared to wealthier suburban schools (Kozol 1991, Rothstein 2004a), historic racial inequality (Mayer 1991; Yinger 1993; Harding 2003) and school policies and processes that may resonate less with minority students, which can lead these students to become alienated and disengaged from school (Ogbu 1978, 1991a, 1991b, 1992; Fordham & Ogbu 1986; Lawrence 1997).

Hypothesis 5: Earnest achievers will have the highest percentage of suburban students compared to the other early graduate groups.

The fifth and final hypothesis in this chapter is that earnest achievers will have the highest percentage of suburban students compared to the other early graduate groups. Just as urban stu- dents are expected to be less engaged with school compared to suburban students, suburban stu- dents are expected to have the highest likelihood of attending schools with greater educational resources and support since suburban schools may have higher spending per pupil due to higher

tax bases (Rothstein 2004a). These suburban students are also expected to experience less cul- tural resistance to school norms, processes and policies because of a greater percentage of non- minority (i.e., white) students comprising the student population. These conditions are expected to support an earnest achiever’s aggressive matriculation with a diploma (Ogbu 1978, 1991a, 1991b, 1992; Cummins 1986; Fordham & Ogbu 1986; Ying 1993; Harding 2003).