2-13. The term indigenous means native, originating in, or intrinsic to an area or region. The term surrogate refers to someone who takes the place of or acts for another. A surrogate also simply means a substitute.
2-14. U.S. military thought and doctrine with respect to indigenous or surrogate forces employed in UW have evolved significantly since WW II. During and immediately following the Korean war, the focus was on resistance forces. Doctrinal change was required to respond to the changing world situation and to the operational application of UW capabilities in the intervening years since the Korean war. The 1990 version of FM 31-20, Doctrine for Army Special Forces, addressed insurgent groups as indigenous or surrogate forces for UW. The FM also formally introduced the concept of UW conducted independently of conventional operations.
2-15. Joint doctrine states that resistance movements are oriented at disrupting the civil order and stability of either a legally established government or an occupying power and that an insurgency is dedicated solely against a constituted government. For clarity in referring to SF UW operations, resistance movements generally fall into one of two categories, insurgent or partisan. While the insurgent is dedicated solely against a constituted government, the partisan is dedicated solely against an occupying power. In SF terms, the essential difference between insurgent and partisan groups is, therefore, the orientation of their aggression. The partisan is organized against an occupying power (like the French Resistance of WW II organized against Nazi occupation). The insurgent is oriented against an existing government (like the Colombian Revolutionary Armed Forces [FARC] against the Colombian Government). Although both forms of resistance may operate independently of external support and sponsorship, partisan groups normally rely heavily upon such support and readily accept direction from the external sponsor’s conventional command structure. As a rule, insurgent groups are more independent and difficult to control; however, they present the option of offensively employing UW capabilities in the absence of conventional conflict. The Communist-inspired wars of national liberation, prevalent in the 1960s and the 1970s, and the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA) are examples of
insurgent groups sponsored and supported externally, even though the conflict itself was initiated internally.
2-16. The United States often chooses to respond militarily to crises within the framework of a coalition rather than to respond unilaterally. These coalitions consist of standing or rapidly formed conventional forces that operate in the context of an alliance formed to achieve a specific common purpose. The choice to act as part of a coalition rather than unilaterally reflects certain political and operational realities. A coalition can politically enhance the legitimacy of U.S. military operations and secure international support. Tangible evidence that other affected nations are willing to commit their forces and to reduce the U.S. share of operational costs strengthens domestic support. Like resistance forces described previously, these coalition forces have their own interests, goals, and objectives but are united with the United States to achieve a specific purpose. From a U.S. point of view, these coalition forces and resources are surrogates and act as substitutes for U.S. troops and resources, reducing U.S. commitment. This force-multiplier effect is similar to that achieved by U.S. support to resistance groups. Coalitions can then either replace or augment standing international forces.
2-17. Coalition support activities require the United States to assess, integrate, support, direct, and employ these forces rapidly. Without the benefit of formal treaty arrangements and the interoperability derived from agreements and combined training, working relationships must be established with these coalition forces to assess and integrate them into multinational operations. Because SF personnel are trained to work with surrogates and are oriented to work with forces indigenous to a variety of regions around the globe, the Army has turned to SF to perform this function. The UW skills and core competencies that permitted SF to integrate and influence the activities of resistance groups successfully have proved readily adaptable to such coalition forces. Those skills exercised by SF working with coalition forces also reinforce SF UW skills. Accustomed to operating with forces possessing distinct capabilities, unique mixes of equipment, specific cultures and military doctrines, and their own agenda, SF has achieved success in this new application of UW. The conventional coalition forces trained, organized, equipped, advised, and led in varying degrees by SF and U.S. allies represent the newest evolution in UW-related surrogate forces. 2-18. SF units conducting UW as part of coalition support operations are task-organized as Special Forces liaison elements (SFLEs). These elements collocate with military forces of coalition partners and provide essential U.S. command, control, communications, computers, and intelligence (C4I) links to the coalition partners. They can assess, train, organize, equip, advise, and lead coalition forces according to the terms of the specific coalition and the operational situation. SFLEs advise their foreign counterparts on U.S. military intentions and capabilities. They can also provide training, secure communications among the force, and downlinks to global positioning systems. The SFLEs also confirm the situation on the ground, assist in fire support planning, and enable overall coordination between U.S. forces and their coalition partners. They facilitate multinational operations by military units not trained for interoperability with U.S. forces.
FM 3-05.20
2-19. In addition to the three broad categories of insurgents, partisans, and coalition forces, SF performing UW must work with and through independently operating insurgents and clandestine organizations. These organizations offer force-multiplying capabilities, particularly in support of specific UW activities, such as UAR. Personal reward or gain can motivate these groups to cooperate with U.S. and coalition operations. Insurgents and clandestine organizations can also view U.S. and coalition operations as supporting their current organizational goals, or they can be genuinely sympathetic toward the aims of the coalition.
2-20. UW can be characterized as support to the military and paramilitary aspects of a resistance to foreign invasion and occupation. SF units do not create resistance movements or coalitions. They provide advice, training, and assistance to existing indigenous resistance movements and international coalitions. When conducted with conventional operations, the intent of UW from the U.S. military perspective is to augment committed U.S. forces or to reduce the level of U.S. forces required in achieving operational and strategic objectives. UW accomplishes this goal by developing and sustaining surrogate forces and synchronizing their activities with those of the United States and its allies. When UW operations support conventional military operations, the focus is primarily on military objectives. When conducted independently, the ultimate objective of UW is political change. Military activity increases with the success of efforts to organize and mobilize the civil populace against a hostile government or an occupying power. These military activities are a tool to eliminate an occupying force or to replace an existing government.
2-21. Partisan and insurgent resistance organizations consist of four elements: area command, guerrilla force, auxiliary, and underground. The area command is the organizational structure established within the JSOA to command and control resistance forces. The guerrilla force is the overt military or paramilitary arm. The auxiliary is the clandestine support element of the guerrilla force. The underground is a cellular organization that conducts clandestine subversion, sabotage, and intelligence-collection activities in areas denied to or unsuitable for the guerrilla force. The organization of coalition forces is generally similar to conventional models, although each region or country presents unique challenges, effectively managed only through the regional orientation of dedicated SF UW forces. The nature of indigenous insurgent, partisan, or coalition forces and the operational environment determine UW TTP.