This thesis is the first to demonstrate an age difference in learning from positive and negative bias across the life span via these age groups 7-10, 11-14, 15-18, 19-35 and 40-55. Generally,
the thesis provides an important framework for understanding an individual’s behaviour to successfully learn from positive and negative feedback and understanding the factors, which
contribute to individual differences in reward related processes and eventually generate insights relevant for therapeutic interventions in anxiety, a diathesis closely related to shyness
and behavioural inhibition (Bar-Haim et al., 2009; 2012). Furthermore, feedback learning has been found to strongly associate to successful learning and it is of great importance for
educational practice (van Duijvenvoorde et al., 2008). By comparing the behavioural changes
in learning from positive and negative feedback researchers could have a clear distinction of
the occurring developmental changes. This research could inspire more studies on the adolescent development in terms of the reward system in cognitive performance, which
advances with age. Children and adolescents are more successful on feedback learning tasks
in terms of positive and negative feedback (Crone et al., 2004; van Duijvenvoorde et al., 2008). The age differences in this task create the basis for future research purposes of
cognitive performance and provide further insights into children’s and adults processing of performance feedback.
Furthermore, our behavioural approach on reward bias has helped us to resolve limitations in
the interpretation of findings from developmental studies on feedback processing. The current
cognitive reinforcement learning paradigm of “prince and princess” could help resolve why children preform poorly on rule and reversal learning paradigms and could also account for
individual differences in performance between children, adolescents and adults. Finally, this
thesis contributed on the ability to make successful use of performance feedback, which
increases with age until adulthood. This research is a good indicator how positive and negative feedback shifts during the lifespan.
Lastly, this research on reward processing in healthy humans could contribute in clinical
research due to various psychiatric disorders, which are linked to reward sensitivity. Similarly, developmental studies have demonstrated that adolescents are vulnerable to
gambling (Chambers & Potenza, 2003) and addiction (Chambers et al., 2003). Therefore,
these novel behavioural findings could be useful in further examining possible dysfunctions in the reward system, which result to decreased motivation for seeking rewards and decreased
social interactions or increased in specific reward seeking behaviour such as such as
pathologic gambling (Hollander et al., 2000) or substance abuse (Koob et al., 1998).
Moreover, dysfunctions of reward processing are strongly linked to several psychiatric
disorders. For example, alcoholism, ADHD, autism, personality disorders, impulsive and compulsive behavioural-disorders (Blum, 2000).
4.5. Conclusions
This thesis presented novel findings, which contribute to the understanding of reward
processing across the lifespan. This field of research is not only of theoretical interest but
provides knowledge of individual’s likely behaviour during reward based learning and
enables the generation of more accurate models, which provide a better mean for running
well controlled experiments. The main reason of this thesis is the intriguing study of rewards.
Rewards have an important contribution to individuals either as primary or as secondary
reinforcers (Delgado et al., 2000). The thesis introduced an inverted U-shaped curve in RBc across the lifespan. Particularly, children, adolescents (aged 7-18) and adults aged (40-55
years old) displayed larger bias in learning from negative feedback. On the other hand, young adults (aged 19-35) tended to learn more from positive feedback throughout the “prince and
princess” task. This research highlights that both positive and negative feedback are
important from improving cognitive performance during development (Frank et al., 2004). In
conclusion, the behavioural results of the current research revealed a rise and fall of the RBc
across the lifespan and showed clearly that age in the context of reward processing is a well- established indicator of individuals’ tendency to act upon positive or negative feedback
events in the face of uncertainty. Finally, it was demonstrated that behaviour in response to
reward bias provides fundamental information on how individuals learning from positive and negative feedback changes within the years. However the underlying mechanisms of RBc
remain unclear but evidence from this thesis encourage effort to understand the influence of
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