Ubicación

University education in Nepal is offered by six institutions: Tribhuvan University, Mahendra Sanskrit University, Lumbini Buddhi University, Kathmandu University, Purbanchal University and Pokhara University. In addition, there are two academic institutions, BP Koala Institute of Health Science (BPKIHS) and National Academy of

40 Medical Science (NAMS) that run medical courses at undergraduate and post-graduate levels (educatenepal.com, 2017).

A report from the World Bank (2013b) relating to the expansion of private higher education in Nepal suggests that there are issues of limited access and concerns over quality and quality assurance, funding and governance. Issues over quality mainly exist as higher education has expanded primarily in the private sector restricting opportunities for poorer segments of the population.

The report from the World Bank (op. cit.) went on to suggest that, except for a few private and public institutions, the quality of education (no definition of which was given by the World Bank) was poor in Nepal. On the whole quality assurance and accreditation procedures were not in place, the exception being for a rudimentary system of quality assurance for professional education in engineering and medicine. Overall the governance of state funded higher education was still weak and decentralisation was seen as the means of improving all aspects of governance. Glencorse (2013) refers to, “the bloated roster of professors means that many are unpaid and unmotivated, and students are deeply unhappy” (p.1). The World Bank (op. cit.) also commented that barring a few premier institutions, the relevance of higher education to the needs of the job market was poor.

The Nepalese University Grants Commission recognised in their most recent report that HE has, “proved to be an essential and integral aspect of social and economic development. It enhances employment by promoting new skills and knowledge” (NUGC, 2012, p. iii). However, as in the World Bank Report (op. cit.), the NUGC (op. cit.) recognised that Nepal has encountered difficulties in maintaining equity in access

41 and assuring quality in higher education and there remained concerns over the quality of education.

It was also noted (CountrystudiesUS, 2014) that degrees, especially those obtained from American and West European institutions, carried greater prestige for employment and status than degrees from Nepalese universities. Higher caste families also had the necessary connections to receive Government scholarships to study abroad. However, if rural families gave high value to the education of their children, they were forced to send them to urban areas and this, “was a very expensive proposition that the vast majority of rural households could not afford” (CountrystudiesUS, 2014, p. 1).

The Embassy of Nepal (2017) reported a growing attraction of the UK as a preferred choice of destination for Nepalese students aspiring to higher education, recognising that the UK Government had been regularly providing scholarships in different areas for the development of human resource in Nepal since the 1950s. In addition, the UK has been offering Chevening Awards to Nepalese students for many years. However, “The number of Nepalese students pursuing university and college degrees in the UK was increasing until lately, when there were major changes in UK’s immigration policy and regulations relating student visas” (Embassy of Nepal, 2017, p. 1). Brooks and Waters (2011, p. 44) state that, “The movement of students across the world in pursuit of a higher education is strongly affected by education policies and by policies in other areas including employment and immigration”.

42 2.5 Conclusion to Chapter Two

Following the removal of the 104-year-old Rana oligarchy in 1951, the introduction of a parliamentary form of a democratic system led to significant changes to the state funded educational infrastructure, although continuing political instability has led to an increase in private schooling.

Bloomer and Hodkinson (1997) summarise educational decision-making as involving connections likely to be affected by social and cultural contexts, as well as actions and learning. A UK university business studies course may, therefore, need to address the complex issue of cultural differences and cultural inclusivity seen from the continuing influence of caste and culture in Nepalese society that may guide the learning of UK educated Nepalese business students returning home as graduates.

Within the overall context of the research undertaken for this thesis, the following key issues have been introduced and helped provide the background context. History and education are closely interwoven, especially links to English schools’ system, as evidenced in the development of private schools. Prior to 1951, education was restricted to rulers and the elite since education for others was seen as a threat to the rulers. Since 1951 major developments in access to education have been made including the expansion of primary schools throughout Nepal and significant progress has been made in improving education, particularly literacy.

Throughout the history of Nepal, the caste system has been active in defining the status and social standing of people. Even today the caste system exerts influence, although lower castes may now have greater opportunities through the expansion of literacy and availability of primary and secondary education. Various pieces of legislation have been

43 enacted leading to improvements in primary school admissions and literacy in general, although geographical location and family finance often restrict attendance. Educational development programmes have been supported by international aid but there are continuing concerns about the quality of state education, including secondary education. Political uncertainty has been a continuing factor in the development of education and has led to the increase of private schools which focus on equipping students from families with sufficient finance with the qualifications they need to enter higher education overseas. Hence, private education has become a major business opportunity in Nepal.

44 Chapter Three: Literature Review

3.1 Introduction

Chapter three is divided into three sections. Each section provides potential opportunities for adding to or developing new knowledge for understanding in greater depth the educational decision-making processes of UK educated Nepalese business studies graduates. Although many of the policy issues in this chapter relate to UK education in general, wherever possible they focus on UK business studies education.

Section one opens by first explaining the challenges and changes in the framework of UK higher education predicated on literature cited in Chapter two. This leads to issues around internationalisation and concludes by showing how educational alternatives in the post-conflict environment.in Nepal have contributed to the emerging field of comparative education.

Section two begins with a review of student mobility focussing on destination choice, theories around decision-making regarding educational choices, including an integrated model of educational decision-making, and the used of remittances for financing overseas education. This section concludes with an overview of the literature addressing the significance of culture including intercultural competence in delivering Business Studies courses.

Section three reviews literature on reflections of graduates studying in the UK. It also identifies graduate attributes and graduate employability, including the case for adding work experience into Business Studies courses and developing an international curriculum. A review of developments in educational marketing concludes Chapter three.

45 3.2 Section One