The communities in the four study villages were mostly rural smallholder farmers characterized by their diversity of livelihood sources and dependency on natural resources. Several household decisions on productive activities were taken according to weather conditions, relying on favorable temperature and rainfall for agriculture or forest related activities. Such dependencies demonstrate the tight relationships between the social and natural systems in these landscapes.
In West Kalimantan, most of the households in the two villages used forests and trees for their livelihoods (lumbermen, rubber farmers and NTFP collectors), while in Central Java the majority were involved in agriculture and animal husbandry. The respondents identified both agriculture and forest related activities as being sensitive to climate variability. In addition to their main source of livelihood, people in all study villages had a range of activities to supplement their income. In Central Java, they were mostly off-farm such as construction work, temporary migration, and animal husbandry. In West Kalimantan, forest related works include cutting and transporting trees and collecting NTFPs (e.g. rubber tapping, birds and mammals,
gaharu or agarwood). Interestingly, the diversification of livelihoods decreased with decreasing
Fig. 2.3. Diversification of livelihoods in the study sites in West Kalimantan and Central Java according to the percentage of people involved (values more than 100% because of multiple activities). (Source: data from household survey (Nanga Jemah and Tubang Jaya N = 50; Selopuro N = 79; Sendangsari N= 77). Note: For more details on the activities included in each livelihood category see Table 2.2.
Although the people interviewed were generally not able to elaborate on the reasons why disasters were happening, around one quarter of the affected households (and in Tubang Jaya more than half) linked the occurrence of disasters with environmental conditions, in particular environmental degradation. In all study sites, trees and forests were highly valued for decreasing the impact of extreme weather events; they were considered ‘very important’ or ‘important’ in helping to prevent severe drought and floods. There was a gradual increase in the recognition of these benefits as vegetation cover decreased (from 41% in Nanga Jemah, 55% in Tubang Jaya, 75% in Selopuro to 82% in Sendangsari).
Villagers in all locations also associated water issues with environmental conditions. For example, in Central Java, villagers recalled that water sources started to decrease 15 years ago when semi-natural forests were replaced with a pine monoculture plantation. Villagers’ satisfaction with water-related regulating services such as water quality and soil conservation, followed similar trends as forest cover (see Fig. 2.4). They perceived water quality corresponded with changes in forest cover. In one case, the village with the least forest in West Kalimantan, said the increase in their water quality was not related to a change in forest cover, but to the construction of water wells supported by the government. In Central Java water availability increased due to a similar program. This highlights the need to consider technological innovation when assessing sensitivity to climate variability.
0% 50% 100% 150% 200%
Nanga Jemah Tubang Jaya Selopuro Sendangsari
West Kalimantan Central Java
Primary livelihoods
Nanga Jemah Tubang Jaya Selopuro Sendangsari
West Kalimantan Central Java
Secondary and tertiary livelihoods
Off Farm Livestock Forest Related Agriculture
Fig. 2.4. Local perceptions of water and soil quality, and changes in forest conditions over time from 20 years ago to 10 years in the future. (Source: Focus group discussions where participants scored their satisfaction with the condition of water, soil and forests on a scale (Y axis) from “very satisfied” (5) to “very unsatisfied” (1)).
While community dependence on environmental factors can increase their sensitivity to climatic variability, forests and trees offer several opportunities to reduce the associated risks. Communities plan according to landscape characteristics to reduce the risk of being severely affected by disasters. For example, the risks of floods were considered in the selection of new locations for housing as well as for productive activities, when opening forests for rubber plantations, agriculture, or building new fish ponds. Similar concerns were taken into account when building new houses or making renovations. People decided on the locations and the height of the house poles based on their experience of the highest water level previously reached and predictions. In both sites in West Kalimantan, entire hamlets relocated to safer places further away from the river to avoid flooding. In the last 20 years Tubang Jaya moved four times and Nanga Jemah once. In Central Java some agricultural fields were abandoned or converted to other land use to avoid wildlife (monkeys and boars) damage to crops and low productivity, and also because of forest expansion and reduced human capital (aging population and migration). This was mostly dry land near forest margins that were cultivated once, or occasionally twice, a year with red rice (an early maturing species that is more drought resistant), corn, soybeans, cassava, and trees on the edges.
West Kalimantan Central Java
N=40 N=42 N=40 N=40
Nanga Jemah Tubang Jaya Selopuro Sendangsari
Clean water
Soil/land
Forest cover
People in all study locations used trees in order to protect or restore watershed services and reduce potential future impacts. Slopes were stabilized against erosion by planting trees on the hills surrounding the villages and by building terraces with the help of government programs in Central Java (1973-75). In West Kalimantan, to reduce riverbank erosion, villagers planted and maintained durian and other trees, coconut and palms, along the river. Formal and informal regulations were also established at the village level to ban logging and maintain trees in strategic locations such as hilltops or along rivers.
In Central Java in the late 70s, a farmer planted teak on his land with such success that the practice spread. The farmer explained that he started because of the better opportunities for this type of land. Trees required less attention compared to crops especially in such dry areas. Trees also offered more flexibility since they can be used whenever needed, and are more profitable in the market. In Selopuro, there is now an organized group with official representatives in each sub-village, and together they have agreed on regulations governing the management of trees in their area. Currently, all hamlets have planted teak, mahogany, and white albizia in their gardens. Not only have these trees provided alternative incomes, but they have also helped bring water to the surface. Households in the surroundings now no longer experience as severe shortages of clean water during dry seasons as before. According to some farmers, they were also able to extend the planting season and share the water among multiple users.