La Unidad de Gestión Pensional y Parafiscales y sus Mecanismos de Control Frente a la

Following on from his work with Wilson, Kellert spent over twenty years examining the human, animal, and nature relationship (Kellert, 1985, 1993a, 1996, 2002; Kellert & Wilson, 1993). His early research involved interviewing Americans across various demographic and socio-economic groups to examine their perceptions of the wolf and coyote (Kellert, 1985). Later, he claimed that the findings from his studies of people’s attitudes, beliefs and values of nature indicated that the human need to connect with nature extended beyond their dependence on nature and the resource it provides in terms of food and shelter, to encompass the “human craving for aesthetic, intellectual, cognitive, and even spiritual meaning and satisfaction” (Kellert, 1993b, p. 20). Kellert (1985, 1993a, 1993b) proposed a set of typologies to describe the way in which individuals connect to the natural world which were based on what he saw as being the ’nine fundamental aspects of our species’ and the apparent biological basis for respecting and connecting with the natural world. These nine typologies ”reflect a range of physical, emotional and intellectual expressions of the biophilic tendency to associate with nature” (Kellert, 1996, p. 26). A brief synopsis of each follows:

1. Utilitarian value is used in relation to the material and physical benefits and value that is derived from nature as “a fundamental basis for human sustenance, protection and security” (Kellert, 1993a, p. 44). Utilitarian or material value is derived from nature in the form of food, medicine, clothing and tools and also

extends to that derived from the exploitation on genetics, physical and biological properties of plants and animals (Kellert, 1996).

2. Negativistic value is used to describe “sentiments of fear, aversion, and antipathy towards various aspects of the natural world” (Kellert, 1993a, p. 56).

3. Dominionistic value is used in relation to nature being seen to be there to be used, controlled and dominated (Kellert, 1993a).

4. Naturalistic value describes a “sense of fascination, wonder and awe derived from an intimate experience of nature’s diversity and complexity” (Kellert, 1993a, p. 45). Naturalistic value is derived from direct experiences of nature and the arousal of a sense of calmness, and peace of mind (Kellert, 1996).

5. Ecologistic-Scientific value, “reflects the motivational urge for precise study and systematic inquiry of the natural world and the related belief that nature can be understood through empirical study” (Kellert, 1993a, p. 47). Inherent in this value is the understanding of the interdependence of species and natural habitats (Kellert, 1996).

6. Aesthetic value, highlights an emotional response to nature, is “often accompanied by feelings of awe at the extraordinary physical appeal and beauty of the natural world” (Kellert, 1993a, p. 49). The aesthetic values of nature may be experienced when watching a sunrise or sunset, or seeing a snow capped mountain range for the first time. These aesthetic elements may be associated with “feelings of harmony” and “order” (Kellert, 1996, p. 15).

7. Symbolic value reflects the “human use of nature as a means of facilitating communication and thought” (Kellert, 1993a, p. 51). Examples include the symbolic use of nature in language such as “her smile is as warm as the sun” and “he is as lazy as a lizard” (Kellert, 1993a, p. 51).

8. Humanisticvalue reflects “deep emotional attachment to individual elements of the natural environment” (Kellert, 1993a). Humanistic value is expressed as feeling of love for elements of nature such as, “I love sunrise”. A further example is the family pet that becomes part of, and is referred to, as a member of the family (Kellert, 1993a).

9. Moralistic values reflect a person’s “conviction of a fundamental spiritual meaning, order and harmony in nature” (Kellert, 1993a, p. 53). Traditionally, a moralistic perspective has been associated with indigenous people; however, it is increasingly being understood through the inter-connectedness of all life.

These typologies formed the basis for his research on the attitudes, knowledge, views, perceptions and the values placed by people on the natural environment, mooting the idea that typologies “may be simply a convenient shorthand for describing varying perspectives of nature”(Kellert, 1993a, pp. 42-46).

Other writers such as Kaplan and Talbot (1983) and Mayer and Frantz (2004b) have drawn parallels with Kellert (1993a) typologies; in particular, by exploring the naturalistic values of nature on psychological health and describing the naturalist typology as emotional connectiontonature through a love of nature and the expression of one’s love for nature based on shared history, interests and concerns. Perrin and Benassi (2009) and Nisbet

(2008) describe the typology of ‘Ecologistic-Scientific’ (Typology 5) as a cognitive connection experienced through knowledge of, and an interest in, nature. These experiences may be gained through the study of nature as a scientist and naturalist (Kellert, 1993a). Humanistic or Moralistic Typology is experienced through strong feelings of, and an affinity and sense of ethical responsibility for, the natural world. These humanistic and moralistic qualities are often exhibited by indigenous people, and those labelled as ‘greenies’ or ‘animal liberationists’ (Patton, 2002).

Nisbet (2008; 2009; 2011), Mayer (2004b; 2008), Perrin (2009), and Dunlap (2000) all built on these typologies and placed their own meaning and interpretation on them through their different works examining relatedness and connectedness to nature. Nisbet’s research focused on aspects of the individual’s affective, cognitive, and experiential connection to nature (Nisbet et al., 2009). Mayer and Frantz’s focused on emotional connection and the development of the Connectedness to Nature Scale (Mayer & Frantz, 2004a, 2004b). Perrin’s work assessed the work of Mayer and Frantz by reanalysing their data with his own and concluded that Mayer and Frantz’s Connectedness to Nature scale did not measure an emotional connection to nature and provided revisions of the CNS to focus on beliefs about connection to nature (Perrin & Benassi, 2009). Dunlap’s work expanded on ecological worldview, developing the New Environmental Paradigm as measure of environmental beliefs (Dunlap, 2008).

My study focused on the following three typologies: cognitive, emotional and physical connectedness to nature. Physical connection describes the physical benefits derived from nature as a fundamental basis for human sustenance, protection and security. Emotional connection to nature is described by Perrin (2009) as a sense of fascination, wonder and

awe derived from an intimate experience of nature’s diversity and complexity. Cognitive connection to nature is described as reflecting the motivations and urge for precise study and systematic inquiry of the natural world (Kellert & Wilson, 1993; Louv, 2010; Mayer & Frantz, 2004b; Mayer et al., 2008; Perrin & Benassi, 2009).

This study used these typologies of emotional, physical and cognitive connection to nature as a lens through which to examine the relationship between connectedness to nature and climate state anxiety and the individual’s experience of connectedness to nature, weather climate and health and well-being.