UNIVERSIDAD DE CHILE, 2010 Autor: Gerrit Fabian Klein

32 _{C. F. Beckingham and G. W B. Huntingford, Some Record of Ethiopie, 1593-1646 (London, 1954), 48, 188, cited} in Pankhurst, supra note 8, p.120. It is outside the realm of this work to discover the real reasons why people

79 tendency of the highland people in continuously denuding the landscape has also been proved by archaeological studies. As one archaeological study reveals, agricultural activities represent the leading cause of environmental degradation in northern Ethiopia.33

Secondly, it has been shown that the highlanders use the natural endowments of the land wastefully and sometimes even needlessly kill wildlife for reasons not associated with subsistence or economic gain.34 Regarding the wasteful utilization of forests in the 1870s, L. Louis-Lande estimated that ―wild olive trees from the Finfine (the present day Addis Ababa) area were cut down, 1,000 kilos of wood yielded little more than 10 kilos of charcoal.‖35

Regarding the reckless utilization and treatment of nature, Richard Pankhurst observed:

―The natives have a terrible lack of foresight and with the object of enlarging the grazing land for their herds or simply to improve the pasture they periodically burn the dry grass. Each time the fire gains new ground and the forests are invaded, and in this way the country is gradually deforested. Under the influence of torrential rains the land is washed away and rains and barren land replace the soil-laden slopes. How terrible is this problem of deforestation in the mountains and what dangers menace Ethiopia if effective legislation does not check this recklessness!‖36

Rosen also noted how Ethiopians have been wasteful in their utilization of forest products. He claimed that people set fire to the base of the tree trunks in many instances when they found the trees were too big to cut easily.37

The third element is the absence or very low level of traditional birth control methods among the Ethiopian highlanders. There is evidence of the existence of traditional birth spacing methods in

adopted a culture of cutting trees since long ago in the Ethiopian highlands. However, this work assumes that loss of traditional cultures due to spread of the dominant religions and the consequent notions of human separation from nature and human dominance over nature contributed to the development of the culture of cutting trees. (See Kelbessa‘s notes on the Oromo cosmology in §2.2.2 above.)

33 _{Kathryn A. Bard, et al, ‗The Environmental History of Tigray (Northern Ethiopia) in the Middle and Late} Holocene: A Preliminary Outline‘, The African Archaeological Review, Vol. 17, No. 2 (June, 2000), p.80.

34

See discussion below in B) ‗Hunting‘ subsection.

35 _{L. Louis-Lande, ―Un voyageur français dans l‘Abyssinie méridionale,‖ Revue des Deux Mondes (1879), XLLX,} 387, cited in Pankhurst, supra note 8, p.122.

36 _{Pankhurst, supra note 8, p.123.} 37

80 different communities in Ethiopia, outside these areas, who use various methods including herbal medicines as a means of birth control.38

When compared with the practices of many of the indigenous and local communities which were discussed in Chapter 2, the Ethiopian highland societies, including the northern highlands, the central plateau areas and the eastern highlands, have developed a careless approach in their relation with the natural environment, which is not based on respect, love and caring for the natural environment. This behavior can be explained in terms of anthropocentric tendencies in which humans are regarded as the pinnacle of creation who can utilize nonhuman nature as per their wishes. If people have not developed the culture of living harmoniously with nature, which is an ecocentric way of life, their relationship with nature could better be explained in terms of anthropocentrism.39 This could also challenge those writers who stick to the argument that anthropocentrism is the characteristic of only Western industrialized societies.

B) Hunting

In Ethiopia, hunting has been widely practiced for various reasons. Hunter gatherer communities conduct hunting mainly for food. It is also commonly made in many societies for the purpose of initiation/rites of passage. Hunting was perceived as a heroic act as it was believed that only strong men could kill large and ‗dangerous‘ wild animals.40

A man‘s social status can be determined by the type and number of wild animals he killed. Women also play a significant role in hunting. That is, they encourage their men to go out for hunting, thus as killers‘ wives, they also assume a special social status. When hunters return home, women were gathered and sang songs in praise of those who came with trophies and in condemnation of those who did not kill

38 _{For instance, see the following materials. (1) Yetmgeta Eyayou et al, ‗Socio-Cultural factors in Decisions Related} to Fertility in Remotely Located Communities: The Case of the Suri Ethnic Groups‘, Ethiop.J.Health Dev. 2004; 18(3); (2) Amare Dejene, ‗Traditional Family Planning Methods in Ethiopia: The Case of the Surma People‘,

www.ossrea.net/index.php?option=com_conent&view=article&id=253, accessed on 28 September 2012; and (3) UNFPA (2008), Levels, Trends and Determinants of Lifetime and Desired Fertility in Ethiopia: Findings from Ethiopian Demographic and Health Survey (2005), Ethiopian Society of Population Studies. It is important to note here that no evidence has been obtained whether the contraceptive methods are used to protect nature or not.

39

In highland Ethiopia the traditional world outlook of the people is almost lost and replaced by religious beliefs of Christianity and Islam. The relations of humans with the nonhuman nature, according to the teachings of these religions are discussed in Chapter 3.

40 _{Mahteme Selassie Woldemeskel (1970), Zikre Neger, Berhanena Selam Haile Selassie I Printing Press, p.341.} (Book in Amharic)

81 any animal.41 These hunting traditions have caused the total elimination of big animals in many areas of the country.42 The introduction of firearms has exacerbated the problem. On the impact of firearms on wildlife, Pankhurst comments that:

―The advent of firearms in Ethiopia, mainly in the 18th

, 19th, and early 20th centuries led to a dramatic destruction of wildlife, first in the northern and later in the southern part of the country. This can be illustrated not only from travelers‘ accounts, but also by the well-documented sharp increase, and later no less rapid decrease, in ivory exports.‖43

Although in many parts of the country there has been a rampant killing of wild animals, in some societies, there was a restriction on animal hunting. According to Workineh Kelbessa, the Borena people in southern Ethiopia had a culture of avoiding total annihilation of wild animals. One of their reasons to do so was the belief that wild animals have their own spirits which could attack people if they conduct unjustifiable hunting.44 The other reason was the belief of totemism, in which they associate themselves in a kinship relation with these animals and hence recognize the rights of wild animals to survive. Workineh also argues that the Borena people are not only considerate to big animals but also to tiny creatures like ants.45 These people are examples of exceptionally considerate societies for wildlife in the country.46

Workineh associates such kind of rampant hunting behavior in the people of the Oromo ethnic group with the expansion of modern religions (Christianity and Islam). He argues that anthropocentric attitudes have developed in the people with the modern religions though the

41 _{See Ibid, p.346.}

42 _{See Ibid, p.346. (This is without forgetting the other threats to wildlife such as expansion of farmlands, illegal} logging and wild fire.)

43 _{Pankhurst, supra note 8, p.119.}

44 _{Workineh Kelbessa (2011) The Indigenous and Modern Environmental Ethics: A Study of the Indigenous Oromo} Environmental Ethic and Modern Issues of Environment and Development, Ethiopian Philosophical Studies, I, p.72 45

See Ibid, p.73-76.

46 _{To protect wild animals from unchecked killing, some efforts have been made by the Ethiopian government. The} government established a number of protected areas, enacted laws (e.g. Development, Conservation and Utilization of Wildlife Proclamation No. 541/2007 and Wildlife Development, Conservation and Utilization Council of Ministers Regulation No. 163/2008) and established a semiautonomous organ (the Ethiopian Wildlife Development and Conservation Authority established by Proclamation No. 575/2008). This Authority is responsible for protection of wildlife in Ethiopia. However, it does not appear that these efforts have been successful as the killing has continued unabated till now. By this time large animals are restricted to only a few small-sized protected areas. Even these protected areas are not a safe place for these species.

82 extent of their influence varies from place to place.47 The merciless eradication of wildlife in Ethiopia, especially in areas where traditional belief systems have weakened and dominated by modern religions can be explained in terms of anthropocentric arrogance towards wildlife.