Uso de la herramienta Guía de Observación

Salmon‟s (2002a) five-stage model of teaching and learning online (Figure 2.5 ) has been researched and developed as a grounded model at the Open University‟s business school over several years, but since then it has been applied to corporate training and a variety of learning disciplines and contexts (Salmon, 2002a). The model provides a framework for supporting and building a 'scaffold' to facilitate online participation in five stages of development, from initial access and motivation to independent personal development.

The model is discussed in detail in Chapter 2 of Salmon (2002a), from which – unless otherwise stated – this subsection is summarised. It is noted that while the five-stage model was designed for distance online learning, in principle, it can also be applied to online components in a blended learning approach (see Blended learning in section 2.9).

Figure 2.5 has been reproduced to illustrate the five-stage structure of Salmon‟s model. The left of each flight of steps (learning stage) shows the kind of technical support provided, while the moderator's roles are displayed on the right. In facilitating clearly structured activities, Salmon's model builds on learners' previous experience to provide

a framework on how to set up an online conferencing environment to maximise the experience to gradually build on participants' experience, maximise individual contribution and interaction and active learning and minimise barriers. In short to build a 'scaffold' to successful participation (Salmon, 2002a: 6).

2.7.3.1 Stage 1: Access and motivation:

At stage 1 of online learning, participants are allowed individual access to the learning environment (username and password), where the moderator welcomes and encourages learners and directs them to the next stage. Obtaining quick and easy access to the online environment is important at this initial stage. While stage 1 is viewed as an induction stage for individual access, Salmon thinks it is not a good idea to offer f2f sessions to demonstrate online access and software features to participants and then expect them to take part successfully. Salmon's alternative is to demonstrate features of the system whilst learners are taking part in online activities. Another reasoning by Salmon (p. 12) is that learners, while attending the f2f session, would 'spread the myth that e-learning 'doesn't work'!'. Here, Salmon is making the assumption that novice participants have negative predispositions about e-learning, which may or may not be true.

Once participants are familiar with accessing the system, it is important for them to be sufficiently motivated to return again and again to take part in learning activities, not just read what is on the screen. Stage one activities should therefore enable participants to feel more comfortable with the technology and be able to navigate easily around the VLE using the different software tools.

2.7.3.2 Stage 2: Online socialisation:

At stage 2, participants establish their own user identities and are encouraged to socialise by sending greeting messages to co-learners. Besides providing communication practice, this online socialisation is thought to create a sense of belonging and promote friendly bonds between group members, paving the way for an online learning community where

participants can collaborate more productively. As Phillips (2000: 4) emphasises, participants need a sense of „who the other person is‟ before feeling comfortable about sharing ideas and contributing to discussion.

2.7.3.3 Stage 3: Information exchange:

Stages 3-5 are more productive in the way of exchanging information, constructing knowledge and gaining of professional development. Two kinds of interactions can be manifested: one with course content and another with people (co-learners and tutor). Course content is usually provided by the tutor as files uploaded onto the VLE, or

alternatively on CD ROMs. Embedded links to other web resources can also be included. Activities at this stage require participants to discover and retrieve aspects of information for a particular task and share results. Task instruction should be unambiguously clear and concise, thus, not diverting learners‟ attention from interactive learning. Until participants are fully familiar with the learning environment, demands for help with navigation and locating information are expected to be considerable at this stage.

2.7.3.4 Stage 4: Knowledge construction:

From this stage onwards, learners should be encouraged to develop their own

representations of knowledge and link it to their personal experience. Cognitive activities can be developed to promote critical reflection (evaluating, comparing and contrasting) and creative thinking (discovering, imagining and hypothesising) (Sternberg, 1999). The idea of constructing knowledge at this stage is to actively draw upon previous experience and apply it to current situations thus developing new insights into practice: participants become 'online authors rather than transmitters of information' (p. 31).

Instructor skills in initiating and sustaining interaction are crucial at this stage. The

instructor should enable participants' experiences to surface and encourage comments, but should not attempt to respond to every posting, as this is likely to discourage learners. Instead, participants should be supported to comment, critique, and debate. Participant contributions need to be acknowledged and main points summarised/ synthesised at the close of each activity.

2.7.3.5 Stage 5: Development:

While at stages 3 and 4 the degree of interactivity is maximised, at stage 5 interactivity decreases as participants move towards personal developmental goals. By stage five participants should have stopped wondering about the merits of online learning and will have become more independent and committed. Participants will be able to relate to ideas gained in previous stages and apply them critically to their own practical contexts. The purpose of stage 5 activities is to help participants develop meta-cognitive awareness and present them with opportunities to reflect critically and make value judgements, thus becoming more responsible for their own development.

As a result of the scaffolding process throughout stages 1-5, participants should have developed confidence in reflecting, defending their positions and critically commenting on other contributions. It is expected that participants will start to interact more effectively and often guide, and perhaps peer-teach, each other. As Mason (1998: 23) puts it, online discussion is the „ideal medium to realise the teaching potential of the student, to the advantage of all participants'.

2.7.3.6 Critique of the five-stage model:

Although some critics of Salmon‟s model, e.g. Unwin (2007: 178), describe it as being „simplistic and mechanistic in parts‟, it can be said that, compared with those of Laurillard and Garrison and Anderson discussed in sub-sections 2.6.7 and 2.6.8, Salmon‟s model provides a structured, albeit simple, framework for supporting novice e-learners (and tutors) stage by stage from initial access to personal independent development. The „complexities of teachers‟ learning‟ (Unwin, 2007: 178) may well be the focus of attention in up and running online environments, but as the present study attempts to introduce Libyan teachers – for the first time - to this kind of technology-supported learning, a simple straightforward model is thought to suffice.

Moreover, at each stage of learning in Salmon‟s five-stage model, the kind of technical support needed, as well as the moderator's cognitive and social roles, are pointed out. It is worth noting that a study by Motteram (2006), a summary of which can be found in sub- section 2.12.4, has successfully manipulated Salmon‟s five-stage model in the context of

blended in-service teacher education. It remains to be said, however, that there can be no guarantee for success in using any particular model or models of online learning, 'but by being alert to the nature of online learning and the underlying pedagogic principles which shape delivery, the likelihood of success is significantly enhanced' (Compton, 2004: 20). Although the stages of development are clearly defined in Salmon‟s model, from a practical point of view learners often project varied levels of cognitive, social, and technical skills and hence are unlikely to progress in a linear succession. Thus, at any one time, participants may be situated at different levels of development (Cazden, 1983). Even though Salmon acknowledges that participants are likely to progress at different rates, it is unlikely that an instructor would be able to support all the learners stage by stage all of the time. Therefore, while the five-stage model serves as a useful framework for online support, care should be taken to address individual learners' needs and contexts at different stages to minimise lurking, distress or abandonment of learning. Accordingly, while some participants may be able to progress smoothly stage by stage, others may require some kind of 'facilitating strategies' (Ge, Yamashiro and Lee, 2000) where more instructional support and time to absorb information (e.g. at the knowledge construction stage) are needed.

It could also be argued that, contrary to Salmon‟s opinion, an orientation stage is missing from the model, where, according to social constructivism, novice learners can benefit from f2f induction support. The purpose, in addition to enhancing group socialisation, is to familiarise novice learners with the online learning tools in the presence of tutor and peers, perhaps through a live demonstration, thus creating opportunities for instructional and peer scaffolding as needed (see McLoughlin‟s scaffolding elements in sub-section 2.10.5). Incorporating a f2f orientation stage in Salmon‟s model can also help to assess

participants' ICT skills at first hand and the extent to which they are able to cope with technology-based instruction, in case further support is required.