Uso de marcadores moleculares en lombrices de tierra

Buildings that are newly erected and redeveloped to house major sports events are generally seen as long-term legacies, and the appropriate city authorities have to look to justify their invest- ment by looking to their usage beyond the end of the event. They can look for two types of usage, sports, leisure and recreational use by the local community and/or the further staging of more events. Roche (2000) had recognized that the 1992 Barcelona Olympics were a part of a wider long-term city strategy for mod- ernization. The strategy, ‘Barcelona 2000’ was implemented in the mid-1980s, and included new sports stadia, an Olympic Village on the waterfront, a new airport and communication towers. Two distinct organizations were created to manage the legacies. One was to attract and run major events and the other was for the development of public sports participation. Roche (2000) main- tains that this strategy assisted in ensuring after-use by the gen- eral public and the development of public and private sector initiatives to manage the facilities in the long term was achieved. The redevelopment of the Faleron Bay is another example. This area in Athens had been a municipal regeneration objective since the early 1960s and formed the basis of the Athens proposals for their candidature for the 1996 and 2004 Summer Olympic Games. Having been awarded the 2004 Games the city is currently using the event as a catalyst to provide a number of new facilities that were desired long before they intended on bidding for either games. These include a water plaza and esplanade, nautical sports complex and the post-games transformation of the beach volley arena into an open-air amphitheatre (Marcopoulou and Christopoulos, 2002).

Melbourne provides an example of the sustainability of leg- acies. The Melbourne Sports Precinct was originally built for the 1956 Olympics, as discussed in Chapter 2, and now provides a home for a host of important national and international events such as the Australian Open Tennis Championships. This repre- sents 47 years of after-use.

The importance of planning after-use has already been high- lighted but the after-users themselves should also play a key part. Those that will be using a facility in the long term are going to be

interested in how it is designed and there is therefore an argu- ment that they should be involved at the stages of the event plan- ning process when this input is the most useful. Meinel (2001) maintains that in practice after-users are involved mainly after the facility has been designed. He maintains that 50–80 per cent of subsequent operating costs are determined at the planning stage of a facility. He argues therefore that for a facility to be a long- term success there should be consideration of the needs of both the after-use and the users.

A question arises here. At what point in the event planning process should a host city of a major international sports event devise and then implement a strategy that will achieve a success- ful legacy. Torino planned the building of several new facilities for the 2006 Winter Olympics, and has already determined their after-use some 2 years prior to their games. However, the design and therefore the after-use of their ice sports stadia for example, were not considered until after the city had been awarded the games. The International Olympic Committee (IOC) had to advise them, a year after the awarding of the games in 2001, to consider leaving a legacy for ice sports in a city (Felli, 2002).

Athens planned the use of its facilities prior to its bid for the 2004 Olympics because they were a part of a wider municipal strategy. However, not all cities have ongoing strategies and some use the hosting of major events to create new plans of this nature. Furthermore, not all cities look this far ahead. The Millennium Stadium in Cardiff, built to stage the 1999 Rugby World Cup was designed to ultimately house different events and not just sports. The proposed location for the venue was very accessible to cen- tral Cardiff and there was a good case that argued for the need for a national venue. However, according to Cardiff City Council (2000) the urgency of the task in building the stadium meant that there was little time to consider future usage at the planning stage, and that bookings were acquired after the event via post- event marketing. Similarly, the planning of the Stade de France for the 1998 Federation Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) World Cup consisted of a complicated process in order to justify the build in Paris where there were many other stadia. At one point this included the moving in of a top-flight football club as one of several solutions to a long-term after-use problem. Even there was thought given to creating a brand new club for that pur- pose when there was no agreement on which existing club should go in (Dauncey and Hare, 1999). The thoughts as to future usage were retrospective to the already done deal to build the stadium. An important factor to consider is the danger of obsolescence in planning early. For example, where even the most advanced facility designs may not be socially or legally acceptable in 10 years because of new standards in health and safety or for the envir- onment. Sports too may become less popular over time. This is something Japanese architect Isozaki (2001) suggests is a concern

to some sports architects and that they therefore consider sustain- able design for sports facilities as an insurmountable problem. Far from advocating that long-term planning is not necessary, he suggests that the answer lies in adaptability of design, where good design will allow for change of use over time. Such design would necessitate the early planning of after-use and identifica- tion of after-users.

Negative impact mainly comes in the form of superfluous physical structures. The term often used is ‘white elephant’ and host cities and supporting governments are keen to avoid such obsolescence and drains on further funding. The Olympic Stadium built for the Montreal Olympics in 1976 is a famous example and is often and still referred to as a white elephant. The cost of the building of the stadium left the city with enormous debt. The stadium was unfinished at the time of the Olympics and cost overruns and engineering problems meant that it was not completed until 1987. In order to pay off the debt, the government used national lotteries, taxes on tobacco products and property to diffuse the cost onto Quebec citizens.

In addition to new facilities and venues there is also the need to plan for the infrastructure that is required to serve these facilities. In building facilities in disused and outer-city areas there arises the need to provide adequate transportation if only for the event itself. High on the list of any scrutiny of Olympic bids are the pro- visions made for people flow (IOC, 2002). For example, intended for Athens 2004 are, 120 kilometres of new roads, an expanded metro system, a new traffic management centre and a new inter- national airport (Athens 2004, 2002a). The planning for the provi- sion of transportation infrastructure clearly goes hand-in-hand with the facility plans. The Homebush Olympic zone in Sydney also required considerable new transport infrastructure to pro- vide links to the city. However, if the facilities that this type of infrastructure serves become underused then the knock on effect can be that they too become white elephants.

Another important and related legacy here is the event manage- ment expertise that is gained in staging an event. If the facilities are intended to stage further events, then such management expertise not only serves as an attractive asset in future event bids but also gives the city itself an internal understanding of what it is capable of. This will of course enable it to improve its perform- ance. The dedicated municipal department in Sheffield was set up in the city in 1990 to make full use of the facilities built for the 1991 World Student Games (Coyle, 2002).

The development of local facilities is important too, despite their less significant profile. The raising of funding via one or more sports events can and has resulted in the provision of facilities in many community-led sports and leisure provision. Including new courts, clubhouses, pitches and the like. Case study 4.1 considers physical legacies in the surfing sector.

What these examples show is that there need to be changes in the way long-term benefits are strategically planned for. It is neces- sary to consider their after-use at the concept stage of the plan- ning process. In determining if the objectives are feasible, the identification of after-use and the involvement of after-users become critical. Furthermore, the involvement of those who are responsible for the design of facilities that are expected to be suc- cessful over 30 years or more is also critical at this stage.