Uso de volúmenes lógicos

As reviewed in Chapter 2, the concepts of Lakoff and Johnson’s Conceptual Metaphor Theory are central to cognitive linguistic studies. Conceptual Metaphor Theory proposes that it is vital for human beings to employ a concrete concept while attempting to understand an abstract idea. It has commonly been assumed that word meanings are represented in a spectrum, rather than defined within a clear-cut borderline. However, a systematic and explicit classification of word meanings that is underpinned by cognitive linguistic theories would be more useful for L2 learners of English to employ, when it comes to understanding particles in phrasal verbs. Accordingly, I divided the particles in phrasal verbs into three categories: spatial meanings (also viewed as basic, literal or concrete senses), temporal meanings, and metaphorical meanings (also regarded as abstract or figurative senses) to address a coherent presentation of meaning categories.

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I have adopted three strands from the cognitive linguistic studies, containing image schemas, categorisation, and frame semantics, as theoretical underpinnings aiming to answer the research questions in the study. Since all of the theories are exploited as foundations built upon in this thesis, I will now move on to discuss how each of the three cognitive linguistic approaches is used as the rationale behind the design of the worksheets used to collect data in order to answer research question two.

3.1.1 Image Schemas

Rudzka-Ostyn’s (2003) study highlights the significant importance of English particles in the process of understanding phrasal verbs. She combines the theory of image schemas by illustrating visual images of particles with their semantic categories to facilitate L2 learners of English to better understand the complex network of meanings of phrasal verbs and their compounds. I adopted Rudzka-Ostyn’s concepts, focusing on analysing the meanings of particles to disentangle multiple meanings from phrasal verbs. However, I have revised Rudzka-Ostyn’s model and constructed simpler visual images to represent three types of meaning category of particles in terms of space, time and metaphor. Due to the constraints of space and time in the process of data collection, I argue that it is more economical and efficient to exploit simple visual images to introduce the concepts of image schemas to participants.

Another cognitive linguist, Holme (2009), explores the concept of containment of the particle ‘in’ by using an activity diagram to evoke the meaning senses of another particle, ‘on’, because it is assumed that both particles share the overlapping concepts of ‘surface’ which originates from our physical interaction with the world around us. He claims that this kind of classroom activity is more challenging for L2 learners to engage in, because they have to relate the physical meaning of ‘in’ to the meaning of ‘on’ by associating the physical relationship between these two particles. However, the use of visual images would be likely to assist L2 learners to overcome difficulty by understanding the concept of the particle ‘in’ first and then connecting the meaning to the concept of the particle ‘on’.

From Holme’s study, it is possible to conclude that a combination of concepts with different particles could have a beneficial effect on helping L2 learners to construct meanings on particles. To date, few studies have investigated the opposite relationship between particles. It is well worth exploring commonly used concepts such as containment, contact/ support, and upward/ downward movement in Cognitive Linguistics relating to EFL. Therefore, based on Holme’s classroom teaching ideas of exploring the relationship between two particles, this study provides an insight into investigating three opposite sets of particles, consisting of ‘in’-‘out’, ‘on’-‘off’, and ‘up’-‘down’, and which will

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be introduced progressively to participants in the training sessions. Cognitive linguists argue that the theory of image schemas helps people grasp metaphorical meanings by utilising basic human concepts of the physical world. For this reason, the concept of image schemas can be used as a tool for L2 learners to understand the complexity of the semantic networks of English particles. In other words, it can be argued that image schemas is useful for facilitating L2 learners to build up broader categories of meanings of particles based on the common conceptualisation.

3.1.2 Categorisation

Although Littlemore and Low (2006) suggest that the approach of categorisation may be less effective in terms of teaching the phraseology of phrasal verbs, some cognitive linguistic researchers (e.g. Boers et al 2004; Kövecses and Szabo, 1996) argue that the theory of categorisation can help L2 learners retain a longer memory of metaphorical meanings by introducing their prototypical meanings. One of the findings in Tyler and Evans’ (2004) study of the radial category of ‘over’ suggests that the method of combining an introduction of the prototypical senses with the relevant physical actions has the potential to encourage language learners to use phrasal verbs. Littlemore also suggests that the theory of categories is useful for language teaching and learning, but has practical limitations, for example, the language teacher might only mock-up sample sentences, as she (2009:53) argues as follows:

‘Although the idea of developing a syllabus which starts with the prototypical senses of words and then moves out towards the more peripheral uses may be beneficial, in practical terms it is very difficult to imagine how this might be done, as presumably every word or construction would need to be presented in this way, leading to some very artificial - sounding texts’.

Therefore, a major advantage of the present study is that the researcher, based on the main claims of the theory of categorisation, has designed a series of ‘Radial Category Diagram’ (the term is borrowed from Littlemore, 2009) used in the worksheets to represent three types of meaning sense (space, time, and metaphor) of particles in phrasal verbs in order to stimulate the participants’ knowledge networks. Furthermore, in order to improve the weakness that Littlemore suggests above, the sample sentences used in relation to the three types of meaning senses were all selected from corpus data such as Collins

Free Online Dictionary (https://www.collinsdictionary.com/), with the aim of providing

37 3.1.3 Frame Semantics

Cognitive linguists treat vocabulary knowledge as a combination of knowledge of semantics and pragmatics. Meanings emerge from the interaction between humans and the physical world around them. Since human experience is culturally embedded, it can be argued that meanings are culturally influenced. This is the reason why the central claim of frame semantics lies in using our encyclopaedic knowledge to understand a given world. This type of knowledge can be exploited as a token for L2 learners to access another linguistic culture. The meanings of vocabulary are not always interpreted in the same way as those in different languages. It seems that L2 learners can take advantage of L1 encyclopaedic knowledge and apply it to their L2 understanding. For example, Holme (2009: 163) suggests ‘Grasping the encyclopaedic meanings of words, and particularly verbs and prepositions, can develop grasp of the more extended construction or combinations of words that are built around them.’

The purpose of using a frame semantic table is to help L2 learners develop knowledge of particles in phrasal verbs used in wider contexts, ranging from concrete to abstract concepts. Thus, a series of ‘frame semantics tables’ (The term is borrowed from Holme, 2009) were designed and used as teaching and learning materials in this study. Each frame semantic table has three types of situation, which contain the elements of ‘space’, ‘time’ and ‘metaphor’. Each of the situations also represents a meaning category: ‘space’, ‘time’, and ‘metaphor’. Based on the same central claims of frame semantics, the researcher also designed a story-creating classroom activity using the materials to invite participants to explore their L2 frame semantic knowledge of particles in phrasal verbs. In general, the design of the teaching and learning materials is to investigate the way in which the cognitive linguistic approach of frame semantics can facilitate EFL learners’ acquisition of particles in phrasal verbs.