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The “regulations in a plan specify the provision made for carrying out exercises and for training of staff and other persons” (CCA, 2004: 52). This infers that planning documents should include a statement about the nature of training and exercising, how this is provided and its frequency (Dillon et al., 2009; CCA, 2004). Within this context, exercise can be defined as a simulation to validate an emergency plan to rehearse key staff and/or test systems and procedures for emergency response (Dillon et al. 2009). According to CCA (2004), the role of exercise is to ensure that emergency plans and planning process are effective, while training is provided for the appropriate number of personnel who are responsible for responding to emergencies when they occur (CCA, 2004).

Therefore, training is defined as the required knowledge, skills and abilities provided to emergency responders, emergency officials, and other personnel to perform key tasks required for specific emergency preparedness capabilities which will be used for response to emergencies or disasters (FEMA, 2015). According to Dillon et al. (2009), training is also provided for other people whom responders consider strategic to the emergency response and whose roles are stated in the plan to support response to emergencies. According to Alexander (2009), this combined understanding ensures that an emergency plan serves its purpose, which is to ensure that everyone charged with responsibility of response knows their role. It also means that everyone responsible for response is competent to carry out the tasks assigned, has access to available resources and facilities and confidence in their partners for

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response (Alexander, 2009). However, this is often not the case when an organisation fails to reflect on the need of the organisation and review the content of the emergency plan and its suitability for response (Dillon et al., 2009).Having clarified the meaning of the exercise and the training, the next section will address their importance to preparedness, and the types of exercises.

A. The Importance of Exercises and Training to Preparedness.

Exercising and training elements are important aspects of emergency preparedness because plans need to be validated for them to be effective (CCA, 2004). Unless plans have been tested through exercise, validated and proven, they remain unsuitable for use or response to emergency (Cabinet Office, 2005; CCA, 2004). Furthermore, exercises are carried out to test and ensure effective communication between organisations so that the communication necessary for response is confirmed, understood and known by all. Many of the communication problems and confusion experienced during response to major incidents are often due to lack of exercise to validate the communication procedures and to test early warning process for activating emergency organisations (Dillon et al. 2009)

However, communication can vary in use because in real life emergency scenarios emergencies can occur on a larger scale due to conditions such as bad weather, which then make communication impossible or challenging (Fakuade, 2014). Thus exercise is an important element of emergency preparedness because in the event of communication breakdown during actual emergency, the responders will be already informed and familiar with communication protocol and the duties they need to carry out for emergency response (Green, 2000; Gordon, 2002).

B. Types of Exercise

McCreight (2011) explained that exercise must be simple but facilitated based on analysis of an actual emergency situation and carried out in a serious and professional manner. Thus the exercise will help to examine existing operational plans, structures and procedures, while also helping to identify areas that require refinement and review in the plan (Dillon et al., 2009). The different types of exercise are as follows:

 Tabletop

 Live

 Drill

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Some of these exercise types, such as live and drill, can be large scale involving all emergency organsations and members of the public to test emergency procedures (Green, 2000). This will be carried out in a specified community location and communicated to the public in order not to confuse the live exercise with a real emergency situation. The exercise type used to test and validate a plan is determined based on scenario, procedures, capability, communication and protocol that require testing (Green, 2000; CCA, 2004).

The decision about exercise type is also influenced by risk assessment so that the exercise is aimed at testing capability to reduce, mitigate or control the risk, which makes risk assessment the first step in the emergency planning process (McCreight, 2011). Although exercise can be demanding and stressful, requiring detailed coordination, planning and time to organise and carryout, when done effectively it helps to enhance skills (Green, 2000). It will also help to reveal the ability and skills of responders to cope with real life emergencies and to identify type of training needs required for improving responders’ capability to respond more effectively when the emergency happens (Alexander, 2002).

Thus exercise helps to identify areas where existing capabilities to manage emergencies are insufficient and where additional resources and training are required for the level of capability desired (CCA, 2004). Therefore, training is distinct from exercise because training is about increasing the skills, capability and competence of response personnel named in the plan and who will be mobilised for emergency (Dillon et al., 2009). Training is informed by exercise and plans, and vice versa, and it helps to raise the confidence of emergency responders and personnel to successfully carry out emergency procedures based on the understanding of the objectives stated in the plan and the roles of responders being trained in delivering the objectives (Dillon et al., 2009; CCA, 2004).

Therefore, this section has established that the purpose of exercise is to validate plans, develop staff competencies, test emergency procedures and give staff and responders the opportunity to practice carrying out their roles in the plan. The purpose of training, on the other hand, is to identify limited capabilities and to use the assessment of capability to develop specific skills needed to perform roles stated in the emergency plan. According to Alexander (2002), the roles, impact and benefits of training can only be identified if individuals are positioned in the roles they will be performing during emergencies. In addition, personnel who will be responsible for emergency response and management are expected to be organised and well equipped for the tasks they need to do. This emphasises the

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importance of the next elements - organise and equip - which will be discussed together due to their overlapping tendencies.