We defined resources as all assets, capabilities, processes, information and knowledge controlled by an organization (Barney, 1991). Resources are embedded in processes and routines (Eisenhardt and Martin, 2000). To disentangle resources from the processes and routines of the NGO’s project, we wrote thick descriptions for each instance of SD based on the coded data.
Then, the descriptions were summarized into chronological timelines of events and actions for each SD program (see Figure 4.1). The resulting sequence was presented to the NGO’s representatives in order to check its validity.
Figure 4.1: Illustration of Case Timeline (Dairy Farming Instance)
Source: Elaborated by the author.
The final timeline was categorized into 3 stages: the NGO initiating the project, the SD implementation, and the buying firm-suppliers’ initial transaction (see Table 4.5). Then, the whole database of interviews, reports, presentations, field notes and so on was classified into these three stages. For instance, the transcribed interview of the CSR Director of the Corn Farming
NGOs’ Initiatives to Enhance Social Sustainability in the Supply Chain: Poverty Alleviation through Supplier Development Programs
case was analyzed and every answer related to how they met the NGO, how the conversations were conducted, and what made them enter the project was categorized into the project’s initiation stage. Similarly, every answer on who within the buying firm was delegated to run the project, the challenges during the implementation, the criteria for the selection of farmers and the planning and execution of the SD program were categorized into the SD implementation stage. We followed this procedure for every document in the database in every instance of SD. After that, we elaborated a list of resources/codes from the literature on SD programs and supply management to facilitate the identification of assets, capabilities, information, and knowledge that the NGO and the buying firm contributed during the project (Miles and Huberman, 1994). Through this mechanism, we observed the resources from both the NGO and the buying firm that emerged in each stage of the project and in each instance of observation (see Table 4.6).
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Table 4.5: Description of the Stages where Observed Resources Emerged
Stage Description
Stage t: NGO initiates the project It started when the NGO approached the buying firms; entailing the negotiation between them, the commitment of the buying firms, the approach of the NGO to the suppliers; and it finished when both the NGO and the firms designed the SD program.
Stage t+1: SD implementation It started when the training program was implemented; it entailed the interaction between the NGO, the buying firms, and the suppliers during the training program; and it finished when the training programs were over.
Stage t+2: Buying firms-suppliers initial transaction
It started when the suppliers delivered the first production lot/order to the buying firm.
In the instances of dairy farming, carpentry workshops, and metal scrap collectors this stage overlapped with stage t+1. This stage either ended when the suppliers quit the relationship or has continued to the present.
Source: Elaborated by the author.
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Table 4.6: Resources/Codes Identified across Instances and along the Project
Stage t: NGO initiates the project Stage t+1: SD implementation Stage t+2: Buying firm-suppliers initial transaction
Dairy farming
NGO: Ability-based trust, boundary spanning, social capital, access to funding, support BF adaptation, business perspective, supply intelligence
BF: Dependence on item, competitive priority, corporate values
NGO: Collaboration commitment
BF: Buyer-supplier socialization, production know-how, experience in SD, internal integration, inter-organizational trust, strategic purchasing, technical assistance, transfer know-how, top management support, experience on collaborative relationship
BF: Long term orientation, positive attitude to supplier, commitment with suppliers,
NGO: Boundary spanning, social capital, business perspective
BF: Dependence on item, slack, competitive priority, power
NGO: Collaboration commitment
BF: Buyer-supplier socialization, experience in SD, internal integration, strategic purchasing, investment in suppliers’ assets, top management support, experience on collaborative relationship
BF: Long term orientation, positive attitude to supplier, commitment with suppliers,
transparency, logistics, fairness
Corn farming
NGO: Boundary spanning, social capital, support BF adaptation, business perspective, supply intelligence
BF: Dependence on item, slack, competitive priority, CSR, corporate values, power
NGO: Collaboration commitment
BF: Buyer-supplier socialization, production know-how, experience in SD, internal integration, inter-organizational trust, strategic purchasing, technical assistance, transfer know-how, top management support, experience on collaborative relationship
BF: Long term orientation, positive attitude to supplier, commitment with suppliers,
transparency, logistics, fairness, supplier’s proximity
Carpentry workshops
NGO: Boundary spanning, social capital, access to funding, support BF adaptation, business perspective
BF: Outsource, power
NGO: Collaboration commitment
BF: production know-how, assets-lease, internal integration, inter-organizational trust, investment in suppliers’ assets, top management support
BF: Commitment with suppliers, quality-based purchasing, supplier’s proximity, transparency
Palm tree farming
NGO: Boundary spanning, social capital, access to funding, business perspective, supply intelligence
BF: Dependence on item, power
NGO: Collaboration commitment BF: Top management support
BF did not reach this stage
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Table 4.6 continues
Source: Elaborated by the author.
Stage t: NGO initiates the project Stage t+1: SD implementation Stage t+2: Buying firm-suppliers initial transaction
Potato farming
NGO: Boundary spanning, social capital, support BF adaptation, business perspective, supply intelligence
BF: Slack, CSR, power
NGO: Collaboration commitment
BF: Internal integration, inter-organizational trust, delivery of seeds, strategic purchasing, top management support
BF: Logistics deficiencies, quality-based purchasing
NGOs’ Initiatives to Enhance Social Sustainability in the Supply Chain: Poverty Alleviation through Supplier Development Programs
4.4. Data Analysis
The design is a nested series of instances of SD performed by a single NGO. Analysis started by addressing each instance, which is analogous to within case analysis. This was followed by determining the patterns across instances, which is equivalent to cross-case analysis. The purpose of the within-case analysis was twofold: to deeply understand the underlying research phenomenon, and to build an explanation of how poverty was alleviated, or not, in each instance of SD. The purpose of the cross-case analysis was to compare and contrast the explanations of each instance in order to establish a replicated pattern of how poverty was alleviated across the SD programs (Yin, 2013).
Much like the coding, data analysis was initially performed by two researchers with disagreements being worked out through workshops led by a third researcher. The end result for each instance was a summary of the data that led us conclude if poverty was alleviated or not, the timeline of activities and events for the specific SD project, a list of the resources supplied by the NGO and buying firm linked to the timeline’s stages, and working propositions about the potential relationships between the resources and the poverty alleviation outcomes in that specific instance of SD (Yin, 2013).
Next, the cross-case analysis entailed comparisons of timelines, resources, and patterns of resource deployment across the six SD instances.
The analysis started with classifying the resources deployed or sought by the NGO according to their utilization in each stage of the timeline. Then, we analyzed the common resources among the instances of poverty alleviation.
We followed a replication logic, where we kept the pattern that was consistently replicated across the instances of SD that were successful at poverty alleviation. Next, this replicated pattern was compared with the results of the instances of SD that did not lead to poverty alleviation, and we kept the resources that discriminated between the two outcomes. Finally, we compared the resulting framework with alternative explanations of poverty alleviation identified in the literature (this is further explained in the following
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section). This analytic strategy allowed us to build a theoretical framework of the resources that enhance the implementation of SD programs for poverty alleviation.
4.5. Results
This section is structured in three parts. First, the resources provided by the NGO are described, then the resources provided by the firm are described, and finally alternative explanations for the phenomenon studied are addressed.