Valoración económica e impacto medioambiental

‗Language-learning materials should ideally be driven by learning and teaching principles rather than be developed ad hoc or in imitation of best-selling coursebooks‘ (Tomlinson, 2010: 81). Following Tomlinson, this section argues for the importance of a ‗principled development of ELT materials‘ (ibid.). In the current research, I used Chapelle‘s (2001) criteria (see Table 3-1). The strong point about these criteria is that they are very context-sensitive. They take into consideration contextual factors such as the role of learners (see rows in colour). Therefore, they are useful for teachers and practitioners who are interested in using computers to support language learning in their own contexts.

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Language-learning potential

The degree of opportunity present for beneficial focus on form.

Learner fit The amount of opportunity for engagement with language under appropriate conditions given learner characteristics.

Meaning focus The extent to which learners‘ attention is directed toward

the meaning of the language.

Authenticity The degree of correspondence between the CALL activity and target language activities of interest to learners out of the classroom.

Positive impact The positive effects of the CALL activity on those who participate in it.

Practicality The adequacy of resources to support the use of the CALL activity.

Table 3-1 Criteria for CALL task appropriateness (Chapelle, 2001: 55)

These criteria draw on Interactionist SLA Theory to create ‗ideal cognitive and social affective conditions for instructed SLA‘ (Chapelle, 2001: 45). According to Pica et al, Interactionist Theory holds that ‗language learning is assisted through the social interaction of learners and their interlocutors, particularly when they negotiate toward mutual comprehension of each other's message meaning' (1993: 10-1). This theoretical perspective has resulted in ‗calls for more learner-centred and democratic forms of classroom interaction' (Tudor, 2001: 111) such as tasks and pair and group work activities (Ellis, 2003). Johnson claims that 'student-student interaction in second language classrooms can increase students' opportunities to use language for second language acquisition' (1995: 116-7) as it 'fosters learner responsibility and independence, can improve motivation and contribute to a feeling of cooperation and warmth in the class' (Ur, 1996: 232).

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Although I used Chapelle‘s criteria as a reference, designing internet-assisted activities was not an easy process at all. According to Reinders and White,

The design process is extremely complex, endeavoring to draw on elements of theory, research, and practice in an optimal way given the affordances of particular technologies and the opportunities and constraints of individual contexts, not the least of which are the needs and resources of teachers and learners (Emphasis and bold added, 2010: 60).

In order to design internet-assisted activities, decisions about language learning theories, pedagogical objectives, technological affordances, and contextual requirements all need to be made. Sometimes, however, designers may not be fully aware of all these aspects as materials design is ‗a form of operationalised tacit knowledge‘ that involves ‗trusting our intuitions and beliefs‘ (Maley, 1995: 221 cited in Tomlinson, 2010: 82). There are even arguments that CALL materials design in particular need not to be necessarily about all these aspects. According to Reinders and White,

Levy (1997) argues that requiring CALL instructional design to be theory- driven is unnecessarily restrictive, noting too that many of the theories suggested for CALL have been created and applied in non-CALL contexts;

rather what matters is the fit between the capabilities of technology and the demands of the learning objective … the design of pedagogical activities may begin at any of their three levels: theoretical approach, pedagogical design,

or teaching procedure (Emphasis and bold added, 2010: 60).

Although Levy‘s argument is for a more flexible process of CALL materials design, it creates a gap between theory and practice, a gap an action researcher would be trying to bridge. Tomlinson‘s (2010) universal criteria for materials development are, therefore, more consistent with action research as they draw on elements from both theory and practice and require ‗to be combined with local criteria derived from what is known about the learners, their teachers, and their context of learning‘ (Tomlinson, 2010: 86-7). Below, I list some of Tomlinson‘s proposals for principled

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materials development and present selected quotations that are perceived to be highly relevant to my research. As they combine elements from both theory and practice, Tomlinson‘s proposals are well suited to attempting a description of the complexity of the process.

Principle of Language Acquisition

In order for the learners to maximize their exposure to language in use, they need to be engaged both affectively and cognitively in the language experience.

‗Prioritize the potential for engagement, for example, basing a unit on a text or a task that is likely to achieve affective and cognitive engagement rather than on a teaching point selected from a syllabus‘ (ibid. 89)

Principle of Language Teaching

The teacher needs to be able to personalize and localize the materials and to relate them in different ways to the needs, wants, and learning-style preferences of individual learners (ibid. 97).

‗There must be a built-in flexibility to the course that helps teachers and learners to make principled decisions about texts, tasks, learning points, approaches, and routes in relation to learner needs and wants‘ (ibid. 95).

The selected principles of language acquisition and teaching are very important for this research as they highlight the importance of supporting learners‘ engagement through using personalised texts that relate to learners‘ needs and wants. The teacher‘s role is essential in this regard as will be discussed in the following sub- section.