Valoración de la medicina tradicional

of British trade and navigation in the ports within their respective districts, and the consular districts themselves^" should be stretched to include not only the areas within the jurisdiction of the particular Turkish authority but, more organically, to include also those places close to the consulate where minor officials might be established. The need for a more extensive representation could be fulfilled by the appointment of a larger number of vice consuls and, to broaden its coverage, consular agents could be placed in the more remote islands.

Cartwright suggested that the consular service should be redefined and that the consular districts should be rationalised according to the new com­ mercial and political situation of Great Britain in the Levant. His recommen­ dations included the creation of several new consulates, the closure of some others and the modification of the boundaries of a number of consular dis­ tricts. For political and commercial reasons he felt that a consul should be ap­ pointed at Bucharest. Although the Levant Company had established a con­ sulate in the city in 1814, it had been closed within three years, leaving Brit­ ish subjects in the area under the protection of the Austrian consul. The poli­ tical interests of both Austria and Russia had brought them to establish sig­ nificant presences, and Cartwright commented that it would thus be wise to appoint a ‘quiet and prudent person with some knowledge of the place,’ tak­ ing care to avoid ‘any appearance of rivalry.’ A consular establishm ent

‘would be useful to the embassy in forwarding dispatches, as well as on other occasions.’ He explained how the recent appointment of a consul at Adria­ nople had already produced the benefits that had been expected, by broad­ ening the market for British manufactured articles within European Turkey. Cartwright emphasised, however, that the town did not ‘appear likely ever to become so considerable a place of trade as to require the charge of a consular

The consular d istrict is the term used to indicate the area o f jurisdiction o f a consul. In the A e ­

gean sea the consular districts were arranged into groups o f islands according to the division made by the Ottoman authorities o f their own jurisdiction.

establishment there [other] than that of the consul.’ In Albania, he recom ­ mended that a consulate general should be maintained, with jurisdiction over the the whole area from Dulcigno to Messalonghi.^*

The political events in Greece led Cartw right to recom mend that a greater representation should be established in European Turkey. This could be achieved by adding to the consulate already existing at Patras a larger and more important one at Athens. Aleppo, once the greatest and most important British emporium in the Levant, had long ceased to be of any importance for British trade and thus, he suggested, the establishment there could be dis­ persed to new centres. He felt that the turbulent political situation in the Ae­ gean, and the increased burden shouldered by the British consuls in the re­ gion, would justify the opening of one, or possibly two consulates in those islands. Cartwright suggested that the area covered by the consulate general of Constantinople might be extended to cover the area from the Turkish ports in the Black Sea, to those on the European and Asiatic coasts, including the islands of Tenedos, Limnos, and Imbros. The consular district of Smyrna would lose some of the Aegean islands which might be grouped under a new consulate at Rhodes, Cyprus or even Cordia; however, the islands of Lesvos, Scio, Samos, Patmos, Leros and Calymnos should remain within its jurisdic­ tion. Although the eventual reorganisation of the consular districts would vary from that proposed by Cartwright, the adoption of a service designed to cater for the aims of British trade and diplomacy would provide great benefits for the gathering of information and the formulation of regional strategies.

Cartwright’s next concern was for the position of the dragom en in the consulates. Throughout the Levant Company administration and during the early stages of the Foreign Office establishment, the dragom en were funda­ mental to the operation of the consular service. These interpreters had ori-

Cartwright to Canning on the reform o f the Levant consular service, 10 Oct. 1825, FO 7 8/135, dispatch n.4, ff.36-58.

ginally been employed to help the merchants with their trade and the consuls in their dealings with the local authorities and population. Their position was to be dramatically affected by the Foreign Office reorganisation of the consu­ lar service, mainly as a result of the distrust that their Ottoman origins inspired in the later British officials. Under the Levant Company administration, the

dragomen at Smyrna had participated in the searching of vessels at the Cus­ tom house,^^ performing a task which had originally been the duty of the con­ sul. The dragomen had the right to charge one Spanish dollar for each vessel examined and in lieu of a salary, they earned their living with this fee. The terms of the new establishment however permitted them to act uniquely as interpreters. The embassy at Constantinople employed five such officials, two senior and three juniors as well as four giovani di lingua, a t Smyrna the Levant Company appointed and paid four dragom en and three students; however, Cartwright observed that given the burden of work in that consu­ late, more would become necessary. In the other consulates dragomen were under the charge of the consul who appointed them and in place of a pay­ ment, they enjoyed the right to British protection. The Foreign Office desire to eliminate these Ottoman officials from its diplomatic service brought Cart­ wright to suggest the adoption of the system, in use at the French and Aus­ trian consulates, by which students might be appointed as official interpreters on completion of their studies. This strategy was eventually adopted with li­ mited success in around 1830, concluding the passage between the two ad­ ministrations.

C h a n celliers had only been appointed by the Levant Company at Constantinople and Smyrna, where they carried out a considerable amount of work. Cartwright pointed out the great importance attached by other na­ tions to these figures and how most foreign consulates employed one. The The searching o f vessels had been ordered by the P ash a o f Smyrna after the outset o f the war. Cartwright to P.O. on the reform o f the Levant consular service; 25 Oct. 1825, Ibid., f.59.

Foreign Office was, by contrast, so resolute in its determination to save money on the administration, that after 1825 it refused to pay the salary of the chancellier at Smyrna, making it very difficult for him to survive. Cart­ wright suggested that, given the high work load in that place, the chancell­ ie r’s duties at Smyrna might be carried out by the vice consul. In this way he had sought to justify the continued appointment and payment of the vice consul who, together with the chaplain, surgeon and jannissaries,^^ had been part of the Levant Company consular retinue in that town.^^

On the 29 January 1825 the Company was officially relieved of its duty to maintain the consular establishment. In a communication forwarded to the offices of the Levant Company it was explained that all the officers holding commissions abroad had been transferred into His M ajesty’s service and that their claims would be considered as if they had been in that service from the beginning. The consulages, levied by the Company on imports and exports for the maintenance of the consular establishment, were abolished, and the document suggested that, having lost its original structure and source of re­ venue, the Company had no further reason to exist:

I cannot refrain of suggesting to you for your consideration, whe­ ther it may not be expedient to give up the remaining privileges of your charter, which being no longer connected with the protec­ tion of public interest, may be deemed by Parliament and the pub-

The jannissaries were the guards o f the P orte. A s an honour to foreign em bassies and consu­ lates, som e guards were stationed by the P orte at the most prestigious foreign diplomatic repre­ sentations.

Cartwright to P.O. on the reform o f the Levant consular service; 25 Oct. 1825, FO 78/1 3 5 , f.59.

lie, to be useless and injurious restrictions upon trade.^*'

On the 11 February, in a meeting of Levant Company members, it was re­ solved that a letter should be written to Canning expressing the desire that the commerce of Great Britain in the area should be freed of the unnecessary restrictions that had been imposed upon it by the privileges accorded to the Company by its charter and that therefore the Company was ready to follow the government’s suggestion. If the motion for its winding up were to pass, the Company w ould‘humbly petition’ the King to accept the entire surren­ der of the charters which it ‘could not have any desire to hold any longer’ It would be the responsibility of the legislature to decide the best way of conducting Levant trade according to the public interest. The Company de­ clared its full confidence that, under the superintendence of His M ajesty’s government, its trade would receive the same attention and protection that it had enjoyed under its own establishment. Between the lines it is possible to read the passive acceptance of a destiny imposed upon the Company by the government and which was to signify the end of its privileges as well as its duties. W hilst Canning’s suggestion that the charter should be renounced brought an end to the Company, at the same time it opened the possibility of Levant trade to all British subjects. Despite this, few people were likely to risk venturing into the Ottoman dominions without the support of an organi­ sation equipped to deal with the local situation and the local authorities.

In May 1825 the Levant Company officially dismissed its consuls with the following communication:

Canning to Levant Company, 29 Jan. 1825, FO 78/137, f.42. Ibid., f.63.

Sir,

the proper moment having at length arrived for making the communication, we now advise you that our authority is, this day, transferred to the Crown.

His Majesty’s Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs notified to us, at an early stage, the wishes and intentions of the govern­ ment upon this subject and explained to our entire satisfaction the motives which actuated their proceedings. The arrangement com­ prises not only the complete surrender of our charters but also an assurance that the trade will be relieved from the duties and con­ sulages which we were compelled to levy for the proper support of the establishment. And that our officers in Turkey will be taken under the King’s service. You will therefore on receipt of this let­ ter consider yourself released from your engagement with us and follow only the instructions...which you will receive from the For­ eign department...We have directed the treasurer to hold the sum of £300 at your disposal for the purchase of a plate, which we de­ sire you will accept as a testimonial of our perfect approbation of your official conduct through the whole of our connection.^**

This communication was followed by letters recommending the various offi­ cials to the Foreign Office, but even though it stated that the officers in Turk­ ey would be taken into the Levant service, in reality there was no guarantee that they would be kept under the same terms and office. In fact Cartwright received a communication regarding the abolition of the consulate at Aleppo only nine months later, when consul Barker was transferred to Alexandria in

Levant Company to Cartwright, 19 May 1825, FO 78/136, f .l8 9 . The text is the sam e as that sent to all Company consuls.

the place of Peter Lee/'^ A second dispatch communicated the decision to re­ vise the jurisdiction of the consular districts and to suspend payment of the

dragom en as well as all but the strictest consular expenses/" These letters provoked panic among the employees of the former Company who, con­ cerned for their future employment, tried to influence the decisions of the Foreign Office by sending letters explaining their roles within the Company and the reasons why their positions should be maintained. Many of them, if excluded from the reorganised service, would have been left with no alterna­ tive source of income. Merchants at Smyrna, and the captains of ships which used the port, sought to maintain the dragom en who worked there by wri­ ting repeated letters to the Foreign Office, recollecting their invaluable ser­ vices. Consul Werry also wrote a letter explaining that the position and du­ ties of the dragom en within his consulate, following the surrender of the charters, had been suddenly and considerably weakened, and that the deci­ sion taken should be modified.^' He added later that the dragomen had writ­ ten to him a petition for an increase of salary, the present being insufficient to feed their families. These letters were, however, to no avail. The jobs of the dragomen had often been passed from father to son with a trust existing be­ tween the Company and its employees which had formed an essential part of their relationship. The decision of the Foreign Office left many officials and their families without work, and others with no means of support. It affected their behaviour and loyalty and damaged the reputation of the British in the area. Many of the new consuls, appointed by the government, were hostile to the dragom en. Scattered throughout their correspondence with the For­ eign Office are many allusions to the dishonesty of the dragomen employed at the consulates. The reports relate how these people, unpaid, but remunera-

Foreign O ffice to Cartwright, 26 Feb. 1826, FO 78/137, f .l. Ibid., 18 Apr. 1826, f.3.

Werry to Foreign O ffice, 26 Jan. 1826, FO 78/147, f .l7 7 . Report on the Smyrna consulate, F. Werry, ibid., f.237.

ted through the benefit of British protection, extracted bribes from the local populations when releasing certificates. It is highly probable that this beha­ viour occurred as a result of the hardship imposed on them by the Foreign Office and that the loyalty that had formed the base of their relationship with the Levant Company had disappeared as a consequence of the approach taken by the government. Consul Werry expressed this view in one of his reports writing: ‘The salaries of the dragomen are too low to keep them hon­ est, they ought to be paid in proportion to their services otherwise the princi­ pal cause of misconduct is attributable to their em ployers.’” Although the Foreign Office reorganisation tried to eliminate the dragom en from the Le­ vant service, they remained an essential addition to the consulates until after the creation of a school for interpreters at Constantinople in 1830. The opening of the school was in itself a radical departure from the approach of the Levant Company which had relied on local personnel and on their knowledge of the area and the attitudes of its people. Since the reliance of the Levant Company on local personnel, not only as interpreters but also as consuls, had been one of the first points to come under attack when the ser­ vice was taken over, the school had, in fact, the precise aim of replacing Otto­ man subjects with British ones. The dragomen were criticised not only for their nationality but also because they were employed at the consulates and embassies of different countries at the same time. W hilst the Company had looked after them, there seems to have been no clash of interests or attitudes with the other embassies, but at the Foreign Office their position was regar­ ded with suspicion.

The school was however not as successful as had been hoped. Initially just three young graduates from Oxford and Cambridge were sent to Con­

stantinople to learn the language with the ultimate promise of a career at the

Foreign Office. But the project almost collapsed when the students were used as interpreters, their mediation inevitably being distrusted by the ambas­ sadors. Towards the end of the century, British interpreters were eventually put into action in the embassy, though not at the consulates. Indeed the tra­ ditional families of dragomen were still generally preferred to the British stu­ dents, as their personal ability and their knowledge of the local customs for­ med such an important role in mediation with the Ottoman authorities. When in 1838 Great Britain negotiated the commercial convention with the Otto­ man Empire breaking the monopoly right of the provincial pashas and wide­ ning the possibilities for trade in the Levant, the success was mostly due to the ability of the dragomen dealing with the Ottoman authorities. D rag o ­ men, as well as foreign vice consuls and consular agents, continued to be dis­ liked by the Foreign Office officials in London. However, their ability to deal with local situations, and their low cost, remained convincing arguments for their continued employment within the consular service until after the end of the Ionian protectorate.

Following the dissolution of the Company, trade continued to be car­ ried out by the same merchants and in the same places as before. However, in the absence of the bureaucratic support of the Company, it became much more difficult for the consuls to know the merchants as well as before, and to represent their views to the Porte. Merchants continued to live in the factor­ ies, which remained as communities for a long time after the dissolution of the Company, but the consuls, relocated to their new stations, were deprived of the organisation and community around them, and becoming increasingly isolated, their lifestyles changed dramatically. W hilst the Company had pro­ vided them with accommodation and a consular retinue, and had supported a high standard of living, the Foreign Office, in choosing to enlarge its diplo-

For the debate on the dragomen see A. Cunningham, Eastern Q uestions in the Nineteenth Cen­