Las valoraciones mutuas y los objetivos de los respectivos países

As the personal values which represent culture were found to be an important aspect to consider, the Delphi study was conducted and reported in Chapter 7. The personal values related to e-government portals were identified. The proposed framework consists of two main models.

The first model shows the factors related to system success, TAM factors, computer self-efficacy, perceived risk and their effect on e-government success. The second model focuses on the relevant personal values and their impact on e-government use. The second model is based on the value-attitude-behaviour hierarchy (VAB) model. It consists of four constructs: conservation, openness to change, attitude toward using, and behaviour intention to use. Conservation and openness to change constructs represent personal values. The final theoretical framework for understanding e-government portals success is portrayed in Figure 6.3 and Figure 6.4.

In both models of the proposed framework, each arrow represents a hypothesis to be tested. Both models in the theoretical framework have been transformed into a structural equation model and tested empirically. Most of the hypotheses developed have been directly derived from the TAM, D&M success model and the VAB model. Likewise, the two newly added constructs to the first model (i.e. computer self-efficacy and perceived risk) are theorized based on what has been argued in the literature. However, it is thought to be useful to provide further discussion about all constructs and the arguments behind theorized hypotheses.

6.5.1 System Quality

System quality was defined by DeLone and McLean (1992; 2003) as the overall quality of performance manifested in a system, and it can be measured by the perceptions of the users. As the system quality acts as the “online storefront”, first impressions by the users are formed because users are faceless when they interact with e-government portals (Lin et al., 2011). If a user perceives an e-government portal’s system quality to be of high quality, that user will be more likely to utilize Internet technologies in general and e-government online services in particular (Wang, 2003).

When individuals use Saudi e-government portals to search for information or apply for services, they expect more efficiency and effectiveness compared to their experiences and expectations of the traditional service office approach (Almalki et al., 2012). In fact, system quality has been found to be influential factor that influence perceived usefulness and ease of use (Lin et al., 2011).

Seddon and Kiew (2007) established a significant relationship between system quality and user satisfaction. In (Sung et al., 2009; DeLone and McLean, 1992), system quality was one of the constructs to predict user satisfaction. Seddon (1997) proposed a re-specification to the original IS success model; this re-re-specification contains a direct path from system quality to both perceived usefulness and user satisfaction.

System quality has a positive influence on the perceived ease of use of an e-government portal

System quality has a positive influence on the perceived usefulness of an e-government portal

System quality has a positive influence on user satisfaction with an e-government portal

6.5.2 Information Quality

When Davis (1989) proposed TAM, he called for further research to examine the role of additional external variables that affect perceived usefulness and ease of use.

Information quality is one of those external variables that have been frequently found to be influential factors on perceived usefulness and ease of use as well (Lin et al., 2011).

Furthermore, information quality, as assessed by individuals, usually affects their satisfaction (Moon and Kim, 2001; Aggelidis and Chatzoglou, 2009).

The model proposed by Seddon (1997), as a re-specification of the original IS success model, contains a direct path from information quality to both perceived usefulness and user satisfaction. DeLone and McLean (1992) stated that information quality singularly and jointly with system quality can affect user satisfaction. Furthermore, Seddon and

Kiew (2007) established significant relationship between information quality and user satisfaction. DeLone and McLean (1992; 2003) and Sung et al. (2009) considered information quality as one of the variables to predict user satisfaction.

Information quality has a positive influence on the perceived ease of use of an e-government portal

Information quality has a positive influence on the perceived usefulness of an e-government portal

Information quality has a positive influence on user satisfaction with an e-government portal

6.5.3 Service Quality

DeLone and McLean (2003) added service quality as one of the constructs for measuring IS success. They recommended that there is success updated model can benefit from SERVQUAL dimensions because service quality is the crucial success construct in the IS success model. When DeLone and McLean (1992) proposed their original IS success model, service quality was not one of its constructs. It was added to the updated model by DeLone and McLean (2003). They believe that, service quality does not deserve to be added to “system quality” or “information quality” (DeLone and McLean, 2003). DeLone and McLean stated that, “the change in the role of IS over the last decade argue for a separate variable- the ‘service quality’ dimension”.

In the context of the SERVQUAL model, service quality is defined as the relative distance between what customers expect and what is revealed of service quality and service experiences (Sung et al., 2009). The SERVQUAL model is widely adopted in the literature to gauge service quality in e-banking, e-government, online travel and other web-based services (Sung et al., 2009).

Service quality, in the context of this study, is defined as the quality of services/support which e-government portal users interact with/receive through the portal and/or from the government organization that is responsible for managing the portal. It uses different measurement items which are widely used in the literature.

In this study, service quality is linked to user satisfaction based on what was theorized in the updated IS success model of (DeLone and McLean, 2003). Also, service quality is one of the external variables with reference to TAM in this study. Therefore, service quality is linked to perceived usefulness as the latter can be influenced by many external factors (Davis et al., 1989). Examples of external factors are, interface and functional characteristics of the system (Davis, 1989).

Service quality has a positive influence on the perceived ease of use of an e-government portal

Service quality has a positive influence on the perceived usefulness of an e-government portal

Service quality has a positive influence on user satisfaction with an e-government portal

6.5.4 Perceived Risk

Perceived risk is “commonly thought of as felt uncertainty regarding possible negative consequences of using a product or service” (Featherman and Pavlou, 2003). It has become a widely popular construct within some IS studies, usually associated with online transactions (e.g. online shopping) (Cocosila et al., 2009). Cocosila et al. (2009) summarizes the most popular six risks in the literature of consumer behaviour as follows:

performance risk, social risk, physical risk, psychological risk, and time risk.

Perceived risk is primarily posited as a notable barrier to users acceptance of e-services (Featherman and Pavlou, 2003). In the early investigation of the information technology acceptance and the role of perceived risk, it was revealed that users often have demonstrated reluctance to purchase online by completing a simple online transaction (Hoffman et al., 1999). This was due to risk concerns which mitigate against adoption.

The perceived risk as a singular dimension is firstly integrated within TAM by (Cunningham, 1967). In that way, insight may be gained as to understand the relationship between perceived risk and e-government portals.

Cocosila et al. (2009) stated, in order to mitigate the impacts of perceived risk, research must consider and measure the effects of different types of risk. Toward this end, this study applies elements from the perceived risk literature that are properly chosen for the context of e-government. In fact, this selection is to some extent based on both reviewing literature and what has been revealed in the exploratory study (see Chapter 5).

Therefore, this study adopts this notion of perceived risk and sets forth the following hypotheses:

Perceived risk has a negative influence on the perceived usefulness of an e-government portal

Perceived risk has a negative influence on the attitude toward using of an e-government portal

6.5.5 Computer Self-efficacy

According to (Wang, 2003), “Previous research using the TAM has found that individual differences are important external variables”. Wang (2003) define individual differences

as “traits such as personality and demographic variables, as well as situational variables that account for differences attributable to circumstances such as experience and training” (Wang, 2003). Variables of Individual differences play an important role in the development of any technological innovation in many disciplines, including production, marketing and information systems (Majchrzak and Cotton, 1988).

Zmud (1979) conducted a review and synthesis of previous empirical work on TAM, specifically related to management information systems success and individual differences. He found many studies consider variables relevant to individual differences.

Those variables are numerous, and personality-related variables are among them (Wang, 2003). Individual differences variables are computer self-efficacy, perceived risk and personal values (openness to change and conservation). The two latter variables will be discussed in following sections.

Bandura (1977) stated that self-efficacy proved to be a good predictor of behavioural change. In the context of computing, computer self-efficacy refers to “a judgement of one’s capability to use a computer” (Compeau and Higgins, 1995). Compeau and Higgins emphasise that this “judgment of capability” is not concerned with “what one has done in the past, but rather with judgments of what could be done in the future”. In fact, previous studies have constantly shown that, it is crucial to consider self-efficacy in the computing environment (Chan et al., 2010).

Compeau and Higgins (1995) clarified that those capabilities were not meant to be simple skills (e.g. disk formatting or typing formulas in a spreadsheet). Rather, it includes judgements of the ability to apply skills to broader tasks (e.g. financial data analysis and preparation of written reports). It might be expected that individuals with a high computer self-efficacy consider themselves as able to achieve more difficult computing tasks than those with lower judgments of self-efficacy (Compeau and Higgins, 1995). This study is in line with this assumption. It considers judgments of the ability to apply skills to tasks such as making payments and personalizing the account.

The proposed link between computer self-efficacy and ease of use is consistent with the arguments made by (Davis, 1989; Mathieson, 1991). There also exists empirical evidence of the relationship between computer self-efficacy and ease of use (e.g. (Igbaria and Iivari, 1995; Wang, 2003)). Furthermore, based on Bandura’s (1986) social cognitive theory, Igbaria and Iivari (1995) theorized that computer self-efficacy influences a computer user’s anxiety which affects perceived usefulness and ease of use, and ultimately the actual system usage. Therefore, considering what has been discussed above, this study hypothesizes the following:

Computer self-efficacy has a positive influence on the perceived ease of use of an e-government portal

Computer self-efficacy has a positive influence on the perceived usefulness of an e-government portal

6.5.6 Personal Values

Personality is conceived by the psychologist Rokeach (1973) as a system of values.

Rokeach (1973) asserted the centrality of the values concept: “The value concept, more than any other, should occupy a central position… able to unify the apparently diverse interests of all the sciences concerned with human behaviour”. The issue of how individuals’ choices and behavioural orientation are affected by the value priorities they held was investigated by Schwartz (1992). Attitudes was one of the domains that can be affected by value priorities (Schwartz, 1992).

In marketing and consumer behaviour research, it has been suggested that, “values are centrally held cognitive elements” that affect motivation for behaviour reaction (Vinson et al., 1977). Arguably, the influence of personal values on individuals’ attitude, in an e-government portal environment, has not received adequate attention.

The present study applies and replicates a value-attitude-behaviour model to examine the roles of personal values in e-government portals’ users’ behaviour. Personal values hypotheses are formulated in Chapter 7 after deciding which of the ten values of Schwartz (1992) to employ and discussing them.

6.5.7 Ease of Use

It is predicted that ease of use affects perceived usefulness, because “the easier a system is to use, the more useful it can be” (Carter and Bélanger, 2005). Ease of use is defined by Davis (1989) as “the degree to which a person believes that using a particular system would be free of effort”. Ease of use is among the beliefs which are hypothesised to be one of the predictors of perceived usefulness (Wang, 2003).

In the original TAM, ease of use is one of the four internal variables for which their effects on the actual use are measured (Turner et al., 2010). Other internal variables of the original TAM will be discussed in the following sections, namely: Perceived usefulness, Attitude toward using, and Behaviour intention to re-use.

Ease of use is one of the constructs which is theorized to be fundamental determinant of actual use (Davis, 1989). The theoretical importance of ease of use and perceived usefulness as fundamental determinants of use behaviour is stated by several research

disciplines (Davis, 1989). Bandura (1982) supported the importance ease of use.

According to Davis et al. (1989), ease of use is “theorized to be determinant by external variables”. They found that ease of use as a key belief had a significant but small effect on intentions represented by attitude. Ease of use is one of the particular beliefs posited by TAM which has primary relevance to compute acceptance behaviour (Davis et al., 1989). This study follows the original TAM of Davis et al. (1989) which established links between ease of use, perceived usefulness and attitude toward using.

Perceived ease of use has a positive influence on the perceived usefulness of an e-government portal

Perceived ease of use has a positive influence on the attitude toward using of an e-government portal

6.5.8 Perceived Usefulness

Davis (1989) defines perceived usefulness as: “the degree to which a person believes that using a particular system would enhance his or her job performance”. Perceived usefulness and ease of use are theorized to be fundamental determinants of actual use (Davis, 1989). Perceived usefulness and ease of use are the two particular beliefs posited by TAM which have primary relevance to computer acceptance behaviour (Davis et al., 1989).

Perceived usefulness along with ease of use are both two types of belief that are affected by external variables (Wang, 2003). Also, both constructs are theorized to be fundamental determinants of actual system use (Davis, 1989). Davis (1989) stated that these two important determinants were suggested in previous research among other variables which may affect system use and explain what causes individuals to accept or reject using information technology.

The importance of including Perceived usefulness comes from the argument made by Seddon and Kiew (2007) that, “non-use does not necessarily mean a system is not useful, it may simply mean that the potential user has other more pressing things to be done”.

Many studies (e.g. (Shyu and Huang, 2011; Lin et al., 2011) have replicated the TAM of Davis et al. (1989) and proved that perceived usefulness has positive effects on attitude toward using and behaviour intention to re-use. This study follows what has been proposed by Davis et al. (1989) in terms of the relationships between perceived usefulness and attitude toward using.

TAM posits that perceived usefulness is a strong predictor of attitude towards using behaviour intention to re-use a particular information systems and services (Davis, 1989).

The causal relationship between perceived usefulness and user satisfaction has been emphasized by Bhattacherjee (2001). Therefore, the current study adopts this notion and the following hypotheses are proposed:

Perceived usefulness has a positive influence on the attitude toward using of an e-government portal

Perceived usefulness has a positive influence on the behavioural intention to re-use an e-government portal

6.5.9 Attitude Towards Using

Swanson (1988) stated that, understanding the reasons of why we accept or reject computer technologies is one of the challenging issues in the IS research. In particular, the importance of examining the effects of attitude on why individuals accept or reject particular information systems is one of these challenges. Researchers have studied the influence of individuals’ internal beliefs (such as perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use) and attitudes on their systems usage behaviour, and how these beliefs and attitudes are affected by a variety of external variables such as characteristics of system technical design (Davis et al., 1989).

Davis Jr. (1986) proposed the TAM as an adaptation of TRA which is meant to explain the behaviour of people in using computers (Davis et al., 1989). In fact, TRA is the theoretical basis of TAM for addressing the causal relationships between: perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use as the two key beliefs in the model, and users’

attitude towards using the system, intentions and actual system adoption behaviour (Davis et al., 1989). In TRA, individuals’ attitude was found to be one of the determinants of behavioural intention (Davis et al., 1989). In fact, the causal linkage between attitude and behaviour has been confirmed by numerous studies (Park and Kim, 2014).

TAM has been replicated in many studies (e.g. (Chang et al., 2005; Lin et al., 2011)) within different contexts and demonstrated that, attitudes have positive effects and can predict behaviour intentions. Davis et al. (1989) revealed that attitudes partially mediated the influences of perceived usefulness and ease of use on individuals’ intentions. Attitude is a prime construct in the TAM, the key purpose of which is to trace the impact of external variables (e.g. system quality) on internal beliefs (i.e. perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use), and behaviour intentions (Davis et al., 1989). Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed:

Attitude toward using has a positive influence on the behavioural intention to re-use an e-government portal

6.5.10 Behaviour Intention to Re-use

DeLone and McLean (1992) observed that two previous studies had made extensive review of literature and reported on measuring MIS success which had been widely used in empirical studies. One of these studies was conducted by Ives and Olson (1984), which aimed to review research on user involvement. Two categories of MIS outcome factor were adopted by Ives and Olson (1984), system quality and system acceptance.

User behaviour was one of the variables of the system acceptance category (Ives and Olson, 1984). Furthermore, user behaviour is deemed as one of the most accurate predictors of individuals’ behaviour in the future (Davis, 1989).

According to Chang et al. (Chang et al., 2005), TRA and TAM posit that the intention to perform a behaviour determines that behaviour. The attitude toward the behaviour determines the intention itself (Chang et al., 2005). Behaviour intention is defined in this study as the individual’s likelihood to use the e-government portals, as adapted from (Chang et al., 2005). In the context of e-government, behaviour intention is defined by (Lean et al., 2009) as: “a measure of the strength of one’s intention to perform a specific behaviour”. Based on intention-based theories, the intention to use IT determines usage behaviour and user adoption.

The TAM theorizes the causal linkages between beliefs, attitudes, and behaviours (Lin et al., 2011; Shyu and Huang, 2011). Many studies focus on factors affecting behaviour intentions of system acceptance to examine individuals’ actual usage (Lei-da et al., 2002;

Gefen et al., 2003).

Indeed, in the TAM, actual use is influenced by behaviour intention (Davis, 1989; Davis et al., 1989). This relationship is well established in the TAM literature (Shyu and Huang, 2011). This relationship has been examined and supported by many studies (e.g. (Lin et al., 2011; Shyu and Huang, 2011)). Shyu and Huang (2011) stated, “actual usage is determined by behavioural intention”. Consequently, behaviour intention to re-use is a critical factor of individual differences affecting individuals’ actual use. Thus, this study proposes the following hypothesis:

Behavioural intention to ruse has a positive influence on the actual use of an e-government portal

6.5.11 Actual Use

System use is one of the six major categories of IS success which was posited by

System use is one of the six major categories of IS success which was posited by