Variabilidad Alrededor de los Objetivos de Inflación

An additional way in which we sought to understand cultural, shared and plural values was through an examination of the aims and objectives along with the specific context within which the article was situated in order to identify domains of issues or areas in which these values were considered. Four broad issue domains were distinguished (Table 2). The vast majority could be classified as focusing on the identification of shared, cultural or plural values associated with the natural

environment (43%, n=50) or management of the environmental setting (41%, n=48). The remaining two domains, while they could be considered sub-themes within the larger two, represented distinct issues, that of conflict (6%, n=7) and of participation (3%, n=3). In all but a few instances articles could be classed within one issue domain with little cross-classification.

Articles within the first domain focused primarily on identifying, characterising and/or mapping the values that people or groups have in relation to specific places or ecosystems, such as near-shore (Lipsky & Ryan, 2001), coastal (Anthony et al. 2009) or the interface zone between the built and more natural environment (Kil et al. 2012). Several authors suggested that to adequately account for cultural values, these must be mapped alongside other more ecologically oriented values with examples of efforts at the national scale (e.g. Ihse & Lindhal, 2000; Bearden et al. 2006) and local such as urban green areas (Elmqvist et al. 2004). There was an emphasis on the need to understand the differences and similarities between values held by scientists and those of indigenous peoples (Lynch et al. 2010; Department of Environment and Climate Change NSW, 2010) with some authors arguing the need for new narratives all together, for example, ones grounded on principles of sustainability (Rees, 2003; 2010; Norton, 2000). Thus, as a whole, the focus was on both a mapping of values onto the ecological landscape as well as an understanding of what the values were across different groups of people or different communities.

Literature within the management domain examined the integration of shared, cultural and plural values into management strategies, plans and policies. While most articles discussed these values in general terms, Cantrill & Senecah (2001) highlighted the need to incorporate sense of place into natural resource management while more recently Ishii et al. (2010) examined the importance of both recreational and aesthetic values in long term management strategies for forests located around Japanese temples or shrines. Additionally, these articles explored different strategies for integration of social and ecological values such as co-management for urban parks (Elmqvist et al. 2004), catchment-based integrated resource management for water resources (Wallace et al. 2003) or the use of Specially Protected Areas in Turkey (T , 2007). Zweig & Kitchens (2010) provided a more conceptual discussion of the challenges presented by social values for successful restoration ecology while Robinson (2011) raised questions about the focus of management in general, arguing that context rather than ideology should drive management decisions and that within context lie cultural, shared and plural values.

Participation in decision-making is an oft called for necessity and one that raises interesting questions about who to involve and how this can be done with success and for whom or what it is successful (e.g. Kenter et al. 2013b; Reed, 2008; de Vente et al. under review). Nonetheless, only three papers discussed participation in decision-making in any detail. These authors examined factors that can facilitate or hinder the process, such as the presence – or lack – of shared values amongst participants, or culturally important features (e.g. trees). Barbercheck et al. (2011) and Evans et al. (2008) evaluated the impact of participation from a bespoke community group; the former highlighted the increased knowledge and appreciation gained by both the researchers and the institutional organizational structure. Increased knowledge also occurred for the community members involved in the coastal project examined by Evans et al. (2008) along with increased feelings of responsibility, meaningful action and motivation for future involvement. While Dandy et

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al. (2012) discussion was more conceptual than empirically-based, they highlighted the potential of urban street trees as a motivator for citizen involvement in urban greening efforts, arguing that this engagement can develop and enhance values such as care, respect and shared responsibility. Section 2.4.3 provides a more detailed discussion of the broader literature on deliberation.

The papers within the conflict category, while few, were illustrative of the contested space that can surround cultural, social, shared and plural values. Sarkar & Montoya (2011) provided an instance where participation and engagement was disregarded by government in order to serve national interests. The paper detailed a situation in Peru whereby strategic alliances between local communities and the state were a component of protected area management in order that

communal and indigenous rights are recognised. Years of extensive negotiations and meetings with indigenous groups led to the establishment of a number of protected areas. This recognition of traditional rights was then negated by the Peruvian government who opened up part of the areas for hydrocarbon and mining activity by trans-national companies. This action led to conflict and protest by thousands of indigenous people in which a state of emergency had to be declared in 2009. One of the resulting consequences of this situation was that local people no longer trusted the government, arguing that protected area status did not guarantee conservation of natural resource or their territories.

10 articles within the REA specifically focused on indigenous peoples. Perhaps unsurprisingly these fell primarily within the identification of values domain, although three papers focused on resource management. An interesting example of the tensions between traditional practices and approaches to conservation found in a number of these papers was identified by Kato (2006) who used a case study of Shirakami-sanchi World Heritage Area in Japan to illustrate a local community’s long term conservation commitment and everyday interactions with nature. In the Shirakami, a remote mountain range, people were committed to their land and successfully pushed for conservation, which saved the area from inappropriate development and road building and gave it an array of designated protection such as World Heritage Area and Wildlife Protection Area (WPA). However, the success of these efforts led to restrictions on the traditional practices of the local people as the WPA imposed a complete ban on hunting and traditional harvesting practices. Members of the community felt betrayed and questioned the protected conservation status that prevailed. A ‘Nature School’ was established by some community leaders to develop environmental outdoor education and green tourism catering for urban school groups. The school offered programmes that detailed and explained the traditional practices of the Shirakami people and provided a new way for the community to maintain some of their cultural connection to the land, albeit in a very different way than previously.

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Table 2. Typology of topics for which cultural, shared, plural values are considered.*

Topic Category Description Examples

Mapping/Identifying Focus on eliciting/identifying people’s values or mapping them (physically on the landscape or conceptually across different groups of people)

• Global climate change and management of coastal ecosystems using four case studies to highlight need to consider values in the management (Anthony et al. 2009).

• Looks at measurement of national cultural values by using Values Survey Module via large-scale survey (Bearden et al. 2006). • Introduces typology to understand and identify sociocultural critical natural capital using a functional approach (Chiesura & de

Groot, 2003).

• Examines ES - both ecological and social – provided by urban green areas; social domain focuses primarily on recreational/cultural values (Elmqvist et al. 2004).

• Survey in Sweden representing a new approach in nature conservation where natural and cultural values were inventoried and analysed (Ihse & Lindhal, 2000).

• Investigates the influence of place meanings on visitors’ desired experience from and preferred natural features in wildland-urban interface areas in Florida (Kil et al. 2012).

• Examination of stakeholder values, preferences and potential coalitions surrounding near-shore restoration in Puget Sound in United States (Lipsky &Ryan, 2011).

• Identifies the minimal degree of overlap between indigenous cultural significance/values of flora/vegetation and species lists developed by conservation scientists. Highlights the potential for better management practices if the two complementary knowledge systems were overlaid (Lynch et al. 2010).

• Critiques the two dominant theories for considering nature’s value - based on utilitarian value or intrinsic value – and suggests the need to think more adaptively about the people-nature relationship. Derives an alternative theory of shared values of nature which emphasises protecting processes rather than objects and acknowledges the variety of ways humans might value nature (Norton, 2000).

• Explore how the perceptions, use, behaviours of people from different countries, cultures and socio economic levels differ or coincide in relation to urban nature and landscapes (Priego et al. 2008)

• The prevailing growth oriented global development paradigm is incompatible with long term ecological and social sustainability, solutions to the problem fly in the face of contemporary cultural values (Rees, 2003).

• To achieve sustainability the world community must write a new cultural narrative designed for living on a finite planet (Rees, 2010).

Planning/Management Focus on management of a resource

• A focus on the tension that often develops between the desires of local stakeholders and land use advocates (e.g. NGOs). Outlines how sense of place can be incorporated into natural resource management efforts (Cantrill & Senecah, 2001).

• Shrine/temple forests have social and cultural values (i.e. recreation and aesthetic) as well as ecological value. Discussion of these values should be considered for long term management planning (Ishii et al. 2010).

• Coastal and inland fish stock conservation in context of recreational fishing in Central Europe (Arlinghaus, 2006).

• A focus on the concept of protected area management which often curtails resource use and means of livelihood and how this effects, often fundamentally, indigenous people (Negi & Nautiyal, 2003).

• Identifies the relationships between and influence of, the demographic, economic and cultural values of landholders on their retention and management of native trees (Seabrook et al. 2008).

• Explore the importance of how social values interact with ecological theories and affect the success of restoration (Zweig & Kitchens, 2010).

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Topic Category Description Examples

green areas by managers and user groups (Elmqvist et al. 2004).

• Examines the relationship between landscape park style design principles and the biological conservation value of parks; uses an historical UNESCO world heritage park in Germany as a case study (Kümmerling & Muller, 2012).

• Argues the need to adopt pluralistic approach to biodiversity conservation allowing context to be the determinant of management strategy rather than ideology (Robinson, 2011).

• Assesses the implementation of Special Protected Areas in Turkey identifying problems and potential solutions (T , 2007). • Describes catchment-based integrated water resources management as mechanism for greater inclusion of both ecological and

social dimensions for equitable water policies (Wallace et al. 2003). Participation Specific emphasis on

engaging people/groups

• Evaluates effectiveness of stakeholder involvement for the individuals and for the decision-making process with regards to organic agriculture research in the United States (Barbercheck et al. 2011).

• Examines how street trees might be used to generate social action and to ‘pull people in’ to participate in the expansion and improvement of green networks. (Dandy et al. 2012).

• Details involvement of a specified/designated/bespoke volunteer community group in gathering information (ecological, social, cultural, historical) about and developing management recommendations for a local coastal environment that have informed national, regional and local management plans (Evans et al. 2008).

Conflict Specific focus on resolution/addressing conflicts over values

• Use of frame analysis to understand environmental conflicts over a Dutch woodland showing how contending stakeholders refer to different representations of nature in the framing of local conflicts (Buijs et al. 2011).

• Examines potential for conflict in how locals and urban in-migrants value the rural landscape in Bavaria. Contrary to research conducted in English-speaking countries, there was no conflict in values over the need for land protection; similar to previous research, conflict existed over the ‘image’ of ‘rural’ (Dirksmeier, 2008).

• A focus on the change in environmental consciousness by analysing environmental conflicts in Finland that have arisen over the conservation of wilderness and virgin forests. Outline importance of studying those social actors who participate in defining environmental problems (Rannikko, 1996).

• Identified four distinct ‘visions of nature’ associated with a Chicago urban park landscape designated by scientific experts to undergo ecological restoration – nature as designed landscape, nature as habitat, nature as recreation, nature as pre-European settlement landscape – with different landscape features holding different cultural meaning for different stakeholders (Gobster, 2001).

• Discusses potential of deliberative/collaborative decision-making for addressing incommensurability across values (Trainor, 2006). • Outline of conflict between indigenous groups and government over traditional and land use rights (Sarkar & Montoya, 2011) • Examines how differing stakeholder groups, including scientists, consider scientific credibility, highlighting the underlying values

associated with these views and the need to identify and co-create shared values through strategic facilitation and social learning (Yamamoto, 2010).

*

Articles included in the table were chosen by selecting every fifth article after ordering alphabetically by surname of first author within topical category. All articles considered illustrative of conflict and participation were included.

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