VARILLA DE ACERO CON RECUBRIMIENTO DUAL (AD)

The post-disaster environment encompasses the various factors that have the potential to either cause more harm (physical, emotional and psychological) or to aid children to return to ‘normal’ life. As was mentioned above, the natural disaster event may in fact be the trigger for a series of other events. For a child, these events rather than the immediate trauma may be what is remembered most and causes the most harm. The post-disaster period has been reported to be the most stressful aspect of a disaster because of the long, slow process of recovery that is often riddled with uncertainty (Bartlett, 2008b; Becklund, Wheaton, & Wessels, 2005; Ensor, 2008). Thus the goal of a post-disaster environment is ideally to minimise the impact of the immediate trauma and the stress of the recovery process. The primary factors that influence children’s experiences in the post-disaster setting are: the occurrence of major life events, living conditions, safety and protection measures, parental distress and the availability of social support (Peek, 2008; W. Silverman & La Greca, 2002; Vogel & Vernberg, 1993a).

147 The first factor, the occurrence of major life events, refers to incidents like the death of a parent, parental divorce or a lengthy hospitalization to treat an injury sustained during the event. The occurrence of such an event would likely result in greater mental and emotional stress and alter many other conditions of a child’s life. The second factor, living conditions, involves matters such as shelter, the availability of basic necessities, food and clean water, and proper sanitation which are essential for survival. These matters are typically the focus of initial recovery efforts and children’s physical needs are “usually given a very high priority” in these instances (Jabry, 2002, p. 4). If basic living conditions are not adequately met, children are more prone to illness and malnutrition (Peek, 2008). In flood disasters, a lack of clean water and inadequate sanitation can elevate the number of cases of water- borne diseases such as cholera and malaria as a result of large amounts of contaminated standing water (Bartlett, 2008b).

Safety and protection measures are the third influential element of the post-disaster environment. Following a disaster event, children can be exposed to violence, physical abuse, sexual abuse, or other forms of exploitation (Lauten & Lietz, 2008) as tension in families increases and parents’ attention is focused on other things. Children who are separated from family or orphaned can be vulnerable to trafficking if proper safety and protection measures are not in place (Jabry, 2002). Ensuring these measures are in place for children makes their recovery easier as it increases their sense of security (Lauten & Lietz, 2008).

Even when broader civil protection measures are operating, Winterbottom (2008) has pointed out that the “struggle” by parents to secure the basic necessities can result in the most important protective factors being missed (p. 437). He described these factors as “nurturing relationships with care providers, supportive relationships with peers, meaningful interactions with adults and positive cognitive and emotional stimulation” (p. 437). The need for nurturing relationships between children and significant adults is well- recognised, as is the need for social support from the larger community (Barrett, Barron Ausbrooks, & Martinez-Cosio, 2008; Cryder, Kilmer, Tedeschi, & Calhoun, 2006; Hestyanti, 2006; La Greca et al., 2002b; Lauten & Lietz, 2008; J. Morris et al., 2007; Murray, 2006; Peek & Stough, 2010; Peek et al., 2008). Peek et al. (2008) have described parents as “the single most important source of social support for children in the aftermath of disaster” (p. 409). The physical, emotional and social support that parents offer children in a safe environment helps them adapt (La Greca et al., 2002b; Peek & Stough, 2010; Peek

148 et al., 2008). Since parents are the primary support for a child, their reaction to the event will strongly influence on how a child deals with their own distress. The fourth factor, parental distress, is one of the most significant factors and predictors of child distress or anxiety following a disaster (Ronan & Johnston, 1999, 2005).

For that reason, the availability of external social support for parents (and families) has some bearing on a child’s experience. In the words of Barrett et al. (2008), “[f]amily members tend to be the first line of defense during a disaster situation, but when family is unable to help, a second layer of support needs to be laid” (p. 216). It is here that the availability of social support, the fifth element of the post-disaster environment, plays an important role. Kostelny & Wessells (2005) report that typically less than 15% of children need mental health care following a disaster. Instead, researchers and practitioners agree that most children need community-based activities rather than therapy to help restore a sense of safety, connection to caring adults and hope for the future (Kathleen Kostelny & Wessells, 2005; Ronan et al., 2008). Providing support to parents in particular is a way to promote family cohesion and thereby support children (Hestyanti, 2006; Lauten & Lietz, 2008; J. Morris et al., 2007; Murray, 2006).

Social support can be expressed through both institutional structures and relationships. One of the great stressors following disasters is a lack structure in daily life (Bartlett, 2008b). Therefore the re-establishment of routines and ‘normal’ activities such as school, sports, play, and religious activities can restore structure (Barrett et al., 2008; Inter-Agency Standing Committee, 2007; J. Morris et al., 2007; Peek & Fothergill, 2006; Peek et al., 2008; W. Silverman & La Greca, 2002; Weissbecker et al., 2008). The associated social networks of these activities, which include family, friends, members of the clergy, teachers, neighbours and healthcare professionals, also play an influential role (Murray, 2006; Peek et al., 2008). Using the idea of resilience, it can be seen that social support both in its institutional and relational forms increases children’s resiliency. Hestyanti’s (2006) tsunami study listed several external factors that contributed to the participant’s resiliency. Children found to be resilient had/were: “support from significant others, able to do religious practice routinely, able to learn traditional dance in groups, have opportunities to be involved in structured play/psychosocial activities, and have access to natural resources for recreation, such as a river” (p. 303). These types of activities are only possible with the support of community members and institutions.

149 Community activities also “reinforce cultural values” (Winterbottom, 2008, p. 437). According to Kostelny (2006), when familiar environments are lost there can also be a felt loss of identity and culture. Weissbecker et al.(2008) have acknowledged that “cultural customs and beliefs can also play a role in a child’s post-disaster recovery environment.” (p. 46). Each culture has its own strengths, protective factors and coping strategies to counter disaster impacts (Inter-Agency Standing Committee, 2007; Lauten & Lietz, 2008; Weissbecker et al., 2008). Therefore those trying to support children ought to capitalise on such culturally specific practices as these practices are apt to positively influence children’s disaster experience.

Another area that can be capitalised is “children’s own strengths and coping strategies” (Weissbecker et al., 2008). Bartlett (2008b) offers guidelines to reduce children’s vulnerability and enhance their resilience. Her first three guidelines have already been covered in this discussion of the post-disaster environment: “[e]nsuring children’s optimal health and nutrition; [s]trengthening families’ capacity to cope; [and] [m]aintaining and restoring children’s routines, networks and activities” (p. 90-91). The fourth item, “[r]especting children’s capacities; allowing them the chance for active involvement” is the subject of the final section of this chapter (p. 91).