Figure 3.1. Average Accuracy and Latency to Correct Responses in Neurotypical Participants.
Graph values are means for N = 13 neurotypical participants, error bars represent SEM. All pair-wise tests were corrected for multiple comparisons using the bonferroni method. A) Average accuracy (% correct responses) in neurotypical participants on the Social Target Detection Task. B) Average latency to correct responses in neurotypical participants on the Social Target Detection Task.
Figure 3.2. Main Effects Activation Map for the Neurotypical Group
Activation maps of the main effects were created by calculating an average map based on second level analyses using a mixed effects higher level analysis and were corrected for multiple comparisons using a Z-statistic threshold of Z > 2.3 and a cluster-corrected threshold of p < 0.05 to identify contiguous voxels. The Eyes Alone condition elicited activation in the left FFA (A) and right occipital FFC, including the FFA (B). Left superior parietal cortex (C), dACC (D), and right lateral occipital cortex, including the IPS (E) activation was seen in response to the Target Alone condition. Right lateralized responses to the Target Eyes condition were found in the occipital FFC, IPS, dlPFC, and insula/OFC (F). In the left hemisphere, the Target Eyes condition engaged the Supplementary motor area (G-H), FFA, and frontal operculum cortex extending into the insula and vlPFC (I-J).
Figure 3.3. Condition Contrast Map for the Neurotypical Group
Activation maps of the condition contrasts were created by calculating an average map based on second level analyses using a mixed effects higher level analysis and were corrected for multiple comparisons using a Z-statistic threshold of Z > 1.961 and a cluster-corrected threshold of p < 0.05 to identify contiguous voxels. The comparison between the Target Eyes condition and the Eyes Alone (‘Target Eyes . Eyes’) condition demonstrated increased activity to the Target Eyes in the left postcentral gyrus/superior parietal cortex (A), right SMG, including the angular gyrus and IPS (B), and the right lentiform nucleus of the putamen extending into the insula (C). The contrast of the Target Eyes with the Target Alone condition (‘Target Eyes > Target Alone’) revealed that when the target was paired with eyes there was greater recruitment in the right occipital FFC (D) and the left lateral occipital cortex (E), including the bilateral FFA. Finally, the analysis of the Pure Social Target (‘Target Eyes > Target and Eyes’) revealed that the left superior parietal cortex (F) and right occipital FFC, including FFA (G) were activated to a greater extent when the target was paired with the eyes than when either the target or the eyes were presented alone
Figure 3.4. Correlation Scores from Seed-PLS Analyses in Neurotypical Participants
Graph values are correlation scores for N = 13 neurotypical participants. Seed-PLS was used to identify functional neural networks associated with activity in the right OFC (A), right dlPFC (B), and left vlPFC (C). Error bars represent 95% confidence
Figure 3.5. Positive Salience Network from Right OFC Seed-PLS Analysis in Neurotypical Participants
Functional connections in the positive salience neural network coupled to the right OFC in neurotypical participants. Green arrows depict positive correlations in which increased activity in one region was associated with increased activity in the paired region.
Figure 3.6. Positive and Negative Salience Networks from Left vlPFC Seed-PLS Analysis in Neurotypical Participants
Functional connections in the positive salience (A) and negative salience (B) neural networks coupled to the left vlPFC in neurotypical participants. Green arrows depict positive correlations in which increased activity in one region was associated with increased activity in the paired region. Red arrows depict reciprocal correlations whereby increased activity in one region was associated with decreased activity in
Figure 3.7. Positive and Negative Salience Networks from Right dlPFC Seed- PLS Analysis in Neurotypical Participants
Functional connections in the positive salience (A) and negative salience (B) neural network coupled to the right dlPFC in neurotypical participants. Green arrows depict positive correlations in which increased activity in one region was associated with increased activity in the paired region. Red arrows depict reciprocal correlations whereby increased activity in one region was associated with decreased activity in the paired region.
Figure 3.8. Common Functional Neural Network Associated with activity in the Right OFC, Right dlPFC, and Left vlPFC in Neurotypical Controls.
Differential activation of the right dlPFC as compared to the left vlPFC and right OFC were significantly associated with performance to the Target Eyes condition. Better performance on the Target Eyes Condition, as measured by faster RTs, was associated with increased activity in the right dlPFC and this increased dlPFC activity was negatively correlated to activity in the rest of the network, including the vlPFC and OFC seeds. Green arrows depict positive correlations in which increased activity in one region was associated with increased activity in the paired region. Red arrows depict reciprocal correlations whereby increased activity in one region was associated with decreased activity in the paired region.
Figure 3.9. Average Accuracy and Latency to Correct Responses in Participants with High-Functioning Autism
Graph values are means for N = 14 participants with high-functioning autism, error bars represent SEM. All pair-wise tests were corrected for multiple comparisons using the bonferroni method. A) Average accuracy (% correct responses) in participants with high-functioning autism on the Social Target Detection Task. B) Average latency to correct responses in participants with high-functioning autism on the Social Target Detection Task.
Figure 3.10. Group Comparison of Average Accuracy and Latency to Correct Responses
Graph values are means for N=14 participants per group, error bars represent SEM. A) Average accuracy (% correct responses) in participants with high-functioning autism and neurotypical controls on the Social Target Detection Task. B) Average latency to correct responses in participants with high-functioning autism and neurotypical controls on the Social Target Detection Task.
Figure 3.11. Group Comparison of Discriminability (d’) Scores
Graph values are mean d’ score for N=14 participants per group, error bars represent SEM. The d’ was used to a measure how well individuals are able to filter the “noise” introduced into the target processing system by the task-irrelevant eye stimuli.
Figure 3.12. Main Effects Activation Map for Participants with High- Functioning Autism
Activation maps of the main effects were created by calculating an average map based on second level analyses using a mixed effects higher level analysis and were corrected for multiple comparisons using a Z-statistic threshold of Z > 2.3 and a cluster-corrected threshold of p < 0.05 to identify contiguous voxels. The Eyes Alone condition elicited bilateral FFA activation (A-B). Left postcentral gyrus extending in to the superior parietal cortex (C), bilateral supplementary motor cortex and dACC (D), as well as right superior parietal cortex, including the supramarginal gyrus and the IPS (E), were activated in response to the Target Alone Condition. When the Target was paired with the eyes, there was activation in the right precentral gyrus, insula/OFC, dlPFC, and superior parietal cortex, including the IPS (F). Additionally, there was activation in the left precentral gyrus, dlPFC, postcentral gyrus extending into the IPS, occipital FFC, putamen, as well as the OFC extending into the insula in the left hemisphere (G-J).
Figure 3.13. Condition Contrast Map for Participants with High-Functioning Autism
Activation maps of the contrast between the Target Eyes and the Eyes Alone condition (‘Target Eyes > Eyes Alone’) was created by calculating an average map based on second level analyses using a mixed effects higher level analysis and were corrected for multiple comparisons using a Z-statistic threshold of Z > 1.961 and a cluster-corrected threshold of p < 0.05 to identify contiguous voxels. The activation depicting where the Target Eyes were more active than both the Target Alone and the Eyes Alone condition (Pure Social Target condition; ‘Target Eyes > Target and Eyes’) was created in the same manner, except that it represents an uncorrected Z-statistic threshold of Z > 1.961. The contrast between the Target Eyes and the Eyes Alone condition revealed a single significant cluster in the superior parietal cortex, extending in to the pre- and post-central gyri (A). The analysis on the Pure Social Target condition revealed that the left postcentral gyrus, extending into the precentral gyrus and posterior IPS (B) was more active in the Target Eyes condition than either the Target or Eyes Alone conditions.
Figure 3.14. Regions where Individuals with Autism Activate more than Neurotypical Controls
Activation maps depicting regions activated more by individuals with autism as compared to neurotypical controls. The Eyes Alone analysis was corrected for multiple comparisons using a Z-statistic threshold of Z > 1.961, while maintaining a cluster-corrected threshold of p < 0.05 to identify contiguous voxels. This analysis revealed greater activation in right lateralized dmPFC, caudate, and, FFA extending rostrally into the parahippocampal gyrus (A). The Target Eyes > Target contrast represents an uncorrected analysis in which regions were considered significant if they reached a Z-statistic threshold of Z > 2.3, which is roughly equivalent to an uncorrected p < 0.02. This revealed increased activation in the left angular gyrus in the Target Eyes > Target contrast (B). Finally, the Pure Social Target condition (‘Target Eyes > Target and Eyes’) was analyzed at an uncorrected Z-statistic threshold of Z > 1.961 (p = 0.05) and revealed increased activation in the left SFG (C), left SMG (D), and right angular gyrus (E).
Figure 3.15. Regions where Neurotypical Participants Activate more than Individuals with Autism
Activation maps depicting regions activated more by neurotypical participants as compared to individuals with autism. The Target Alone analysis was corrected for multiple comparisons using a Z-statistic threshold of Z > 1.961, while maintaining a cluster-corrected threshold of p < 0.05 to identify contiguous voxels. This analysis revealed greater activation in the right superior division of the lateral occipital cortex (A). The Target Eyes > Eyes contrast represents an uncorrected analysis in which regions were considered significant if they reached a Z-statistic threshold of Z > 2.3, which is roughly equivalent to an uncorrected p < 0.02. In the Target Eyes > Eyes contrast revealed activation of the putamen (B), the precuneus and dmPFC (C), as well as the STG and MTG (D), in the right hemisphere. The Pure Social Target condition was analyzed at an uncorrected Z-statistic threshold of Z > 1.961 (p = 0.05) and revealed increased activation in the left FFA and insular cortex (E), left superior parietal cortex (F), as well as the right MTG (G) and precentral gyrus (H).
Figure 3.16. Regional Differences by Condition as Measured via ROI Analysis Graph values are mean size of cluster activation for dACC, right occipital FFC, and PCC ROIs in the Eyes Alone condition (A) and the left inferior OFC ROI to the Target Eyes condition (C), as well as mean percent signal change in the right posterior IPS in the Target Alone condition (B). Error bars represent SEM.
Figure 3.17. Correlation Scores from Seed-PLS Analyses in Individuals with Autism
Graph values are correlation scores for N = 13 individuals with high-functioning autism. Seed-PLS was used to identify functional neural networks associated with activity in the right OFC (A) and right dlPFC (B). Error bars represent 95% confidence intervals as determined via permutation testing.
Figure 3.18. Positive and Negative Salience Networks from Right OFC Seed- PLS Analysis in Individuals with High-Functioning Autism
Functional connections in the positive salience (A) and negative salience (B) neural network coupled to the right OFC and associated with task performance (RT) in individuals with high-functioning autism Green arrows depict positive correlations in which increased activity in one region was associated with increased activity in the paired region. Red arrows depict reciprocal correlations whereby increased activity
Figure 3.19. Positive and Negative Salience Networks from Right dlPFC Seed- PLS Analysis in Individuals with High-Functioning Autism
Functional connections in the positive salience (A) and negative salience (B) neural network coupled to the right dlPFC and associated with task performance (RT) in individuals with high-functioning autism. Green arrows depict positive correlations in which increased activity in one region was associated with increased activity in the paired region. Red arrows depict reciprocal correlations whereby increased activity in one region was associated with decreased activity in the paired region.
Figure 3.20. Common Functional Neural Network Associated with activity in the Right OFC and Right dlPFC in Individuals with High-Functioning Autism. Differential activation of the right dlPFC and OFC was significantly associated with performance to the Target Eyes condition in individuals with high-functioning autism. Better performance, as measured by faster reaction time, was associated with increased activity in the OFC seed and related increased in PCC, vACC, amygdala, and hippocampus. Additionally, decreased activity in the dlPFC and dACC were also associated with faster reaction time. The opposite activation patterns was associated with slower reaction time