In addition to chapter one in which information is provided on the research problem and methodology, as well as the conclusion and recommendations (chapter six), the content of the dissertation will be divided into four chapters, each addressing one of the respective research questions.
In chapter two the focus is on the first research question – that is how and to what effect the apartheid government during the 1980s used music as a medium of political communication and an agent of political socialisation to pursue its own interests. The discussion will commence with a brief overview of the socio-political context of music during the 1980s. Of importance in this regard are apartheid legislation, political conflict, government reforms and the various states of emergency. This will be followed by a discussion of government’s involvement in the music industry in an attempt to further the apartheid political agenda. That was done mainly through: firstly, the role of the South African Broadcasting Corporation (SABC) in promoting the government’s ideology of separate development; secondly, the censorship of music; and thirdly, musical projects that attempted to promote the government’s agenda. Finally the chapter will suggest how these laws and events influenced the creative climate for local musicians at the time. Specific emphasis will be placed on the legal restrictions on black musicians (as well as mixed-race bands), particularly in terms of touring and police intimidation.
The focus in chapter three is on the role of popular musicians in the struggle against apartheid, as political messengers whose power lay in their ability to speak to a wide audience and to tour extensively at a time when most had little freedom of association or movement. In this chapter the changes in the mounting struggle against apartheid will be highlighted – particularly the rise of civil society and the tension between various different sections thereof. This can be linked to music and the role it played in the struggle – specifically the formation of the
South African Musicians’ Alliance (SAMA), as well as music’s role in political organisations, church, theatre and schools. Key developments in the music industry of the 1980s will also be explored: the emergence of bubblegum, collaborative “crossover” music and reggae as popular genres; the role of new independent record labels; the importance of live performances, including at new multiracial live venues and events; and the growth of independent radio stations that challenged the SABC’s dominance. Once the context of musicians in the struggle has been sufficiently outlined, musician’s responses to repression can be explored in more detail: their conscientisation and growing importance in the struggle, as well as the many means they employed in their songwriting to beat the censors and get their message heard, such as using double meanings, satire and positive social or moral messages, re-interpreting existing songs, and finding alternative channels for recording, performing and distributing their music.
The focus in chapter four is on the third research question, namely that of the role of exiled and touring South African musicians in the struggle on a global stage. The discussion will begin with a brief discussion of the musical and political contribution made by the network of South African musiciains living in exile from as early as the 1960s. Many were affiliated to the ANC, which continued to function outside the borders of the country and for whom culture was viewed as a central part of the struggle against apartheid as a result of ongoing debates to define the role of musicians in the struggle. This will be discussed in detail before considering the role of the ANC’s cultural ensembles, Mayibuye, Amandla and Medu, as well as key events that took place outside of South Africa, such as the Culture and Resistance Festival in Botswana in 1985, and in the Netherlands the Cultural Voice of Resistance (1982) and Culture in Another South Africa (1987) festivals. Despite restrictions at home and internationally, certain South African- based artists also enjoyed substantial success overseas during the 1980s. These artists will be outlined, as will the role of film and theatre in placing South African music and politics on the global stage. The experiences of South Africa-based artists who had the opportunity to tour outside the country during the 1980s will also be discussed, in terms of how touring provided new opportunities to join the struggle, while also presenting particular challenges to white artists, even those
sympathetic to the struggle. Finally, the significance of the exiled musicians’ return to South Africa after Nelson Mandela’s release from prison will also be explored. In addressing the fourth research question, that of determining what role the international music community played in the struggle against apartheid, the discussion in chapter five will first consider the global context of the 1980s – the politicisation of pop music and the emergence of “mega-events” to raise funds and awareness for political causes, including the struggle against apartheid. The growth of the international anti-apartheid movement is tracked from a variety of perspectives – the UN and the international cultural boycott of South Africa, which reached its peak in the 1980s, as well as through regional bodies in Africa, the USA, UK and the rest of the world. The cultural boycott was a constant source of contestation and will be discussed in detail in this chapter. Once the international anti-apartheid movement has been contextualised, the discussion will turn to the role of the international music community’s role therein. This encompasses several different aspects. Certain artists made explicit references to apartheid in their songs, several of which became international hits, both for individual artists as well as for special collaborative recording projects, such as Artists United
Against Apartheid’s ‘Sun City’ and Hip Hop Against Apartheid’s ‘Ndodemnyama8
(Free South Africa)’. Other international artists collaborated with South African musicians, some without making direct lyrical reference to South Africa. These include Harry Belafonte, Malcolm McLaren, Lizzy Mercier Descloux and Paul Simon, all of whom will be discussed. Other ways that the international music community showed solidarity with the struggle against apartheid were via live concerts and political fundraiser albums, both of which will be discussed in this chapter.