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Ethical considerations form an important component of research. Ethics are not limited to considerations of participants, but instead they should be adhered to as early as during the planning of the research. The Health Professions Council of South Africa [H.P.C.S.A.] (2006) provides clear guidelines for conducting research and so the researcher considered the following throughout the process.

3.8.1. General Ethical Guidelines:

Those conducting research are expected to only attempt research areas that fall within their personal abilities, and this is defined by the H.P.C.S.A. (2006) as competence. The researcher ensured that her sample was appropriate given her level of qualification. Strongly related to competence is the notion of integrity because it is important that training psychologists promote the science of psychology. Therefore the researcher remained honest and fair and maintained a level of respect for the participants (H.P.C.S.A., 2006).

Informed consent is essential for any form of data collection to proceed. This process involves fully informing participants of the research aims as well as their rights to partake in the study or later withdraw (Punch, 2000). This also includes consent to audio-tape and this should be obtained in a separate document (H.P.C.S.A., 2006). These ethical standards were adhered to during data collection. Debriefing is a further responsibility as well as an ethical obligation set forth by the H.P.C.S.A. (2006), and thus any additional information related to the topic as well as information on the results of the research on completion were offered to participants on request. An important ethical consideration is

that of confidentiality as all participants have the right to this (Punch, 2000). Due to the nature of this research and the use of focus groups, it was important that this issue be attended to and clarified before data collection commenced

Information obtained was recorded accurately and interpreted accordingly and the reporting of results was fair and accurate without any fabrications. The researcher further ensured that all sources used in the research process were acknowledged appropriately (H.P.C.S.A., 2006).

3.8.2. Ethical Procedures:

Having received ethical clearance (Protocol number: MACC 08/010 IH) the process of data collection began. Thirteen participants were obtained through convenience sampling and snowballing which were promptly followed by arranging meetings for each group. Each meeting was facilitated at the University of the Witwatersrand in the Emthonjeni Centre to provide a neutral setting to distribute subject information sheets. These explained to participants both the aims of the research as well as the expectations placed on them if they decided to participate. The researcher was present at these meetings to answer any questions that arose in an effort to deal with concerns over participation. Participants were informed that this was a minimal risk study as the central focus is on constructions of masculinities. However, if the topic of rape seemed offensive to them or they felt a sense of discomfort talking about such a sensitive topic, they were afforded the choice not to partake in the study or remain aware of their right to withdraw from the study at any time. This process was meant to screen out vulnerable individuals from agreeing to participate as, although male rape was only used as a vehicle for talk on constructions of masculinity, the topic still had to be addressed and those not comfortable with this remained aware of its role in data collection. The vignette formed a valuable part in adhering to ethical procedures as it allowed participants to speak in the third person. This resulted in minimal likelihood of harm and assisted in creating a study that was non- invasive. If however, participation led to any negative feelings, the researcher

had provided the participants with contact numbers for both the Rape Crisis Centre and Lifeline.

Further consent forms to audio-tape the focus groups needed to be read and signed prior to the commencement of focus groups. Because confidentiality forms a core component for participants in any research, the researcher discussed with participants the limitations of this in terms of using group interviews. Thus this needed to be negotiated at the beginning of each focus group where participants were reminded of their responsibility in terms of not disclosing any information discussed during the focus groups afterwards. This does represent a limitation of this method of data collection in qualitative research as using group interviews threatens confidentiality and thus this could not be guaranteed. The researcher developed a confidentiality agreement to safeguard against this. This had to be read and signed by each participant and this represented a precaution the researcher took in maintaining confidentiality among participants. The fact that anonymity was not possible formed a further limitation of this research. Although it could not be provided during focus groups, the researcher ensured participants that all comments would remain as anonymous as possible in the research report by using pseudonyms.

To further ensure confidentiality once data collection was completed, the data was kept in a safe and secure place at the University of Witwatersrand. No one other than the researcher and her supervisor had access to either the transcriptions or recordings and the researcher brought this to the participants' attention. On completion, the research report was submitted to Faculty and once qualification has been obtained, both the recordings and transcriptions will be destroyed. Having read the subject information sheet and raised any concerns, participants agreed to partake in the study and signed the consent forms. The above procedure ensured that the research proceeded in an ethical manner that did not result in discrediting the discipline of psychology.

4.1. Introduction:

Being of a qualitative nature, the data obtained from the focus groups were analysed using critical thematic content analysis. Having reviewed literature involving male rape, gender and masculinities, and designing the vignette and interview schedule around such themes, talk around masculinities and the connotations the participants attached to this construct emerged as dominant. The chapter will begin by considering issues of reflexivity that the researcher felt needed to be addressed as they may have influenced results. This will be followed by a presentation of the themes that arose. This was achieved by using available literature on male rape and masculinities, and was further understood in using feminist and profeminist theory as well as a social constructionist perspective to inform the writing of the results.