Vida política, vida militar (1974-1976)

Evolutionary psychology theories focus on survival and reproduction (Maner & Shackelford, 2008). According to evolutionary psychology, men are concerned with the continuation of their gene pool and violence is largely motivated by paternal uncertainty (Taillieu & Brownridge, 2010). Men have been historically and genetically more aggressive in competing effectively against other male rivals for sexual access to women for procreation (DeKeseredy & Schwartz, 2011; Kamal, 2013). Evolutionary theories of jealousy generate hypotheses about sexual differences in response to a long-

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term intimate partner’s emotional infidelity versus sexual infidelity (Maner &

Shackelford, 2008). Evolutionary researchers state that jealousy in men is designed primarily to prevent unknowingly caring for children who are not genetically their own (Cousins & Gangestad, 2007; Maner & Shackelford, 2008).

Because of internal fertilisation, men can rarely be certain that their children are actually genetically their own (Burch & Gallup, 2004). Indeed, due to rape or infidelity, there is always a possibility that the children woman bears are not her partner’s. Evolutionary theorists argue that men use an array of ‘mate retention tactics’ when they have younger or physically attractive partners. Some men want to control female sexuality and to prevent infidelity (Cousins & Gangestad, 2007) and violence is one tactic used (Buss & Duntley, 2011). To avert paternal uncertainty, therefore, men are especially likely to guard their partners when their partners are near ovulation because the risk of conception is highest at that period (Haselton & Gangestad, 2006) or consistently monitor their partners, or isolate them from other men (Burch & Gallup, 2004). More severe mate retention tactics are applied to female partners who are suspected to be unfaithful, and physical abuse is the more severe one. One study reported that male partner’s sexual coercion is another consequence of men's

perceptions of a mate's sexual infidelity (Goetz, Shackelford, & Camilleri, 2008).

The general perception from the vast majority of society in Bangladesh is that following marriage a woman should be a perfect wife and be loyal only to her husband. Extra-marital relationships are not acknowledged and are frowned upon (Schuler & Islam, 2008). Therefore, male partner’s controlling behaviours are inflicted upon women of Bangladesh due to sexual jealousy and accusations of infidelity. Pallitto and O’Campo (2005) reported that male partner’s controlling behaviour might increase the

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delayed entry in seeking antenatal care and restricted access to healthcare services (Heise & Garcia-Moreno, 2002; Koski, Stephenson, & Koenig, 2011).

Experts argue that the detection or suspicion of infidelity is an important predictor of IPV (Buss & Duntley, 2011; Daly, Wilson, & Weghorst, 1982), and sexual jealousy is a prime motivator for homicide (Wilson & Daly, 1996). A number of studies have demonstrated that abusive male partners tend to be more sexually jealous and possessive of their partners, compared with non-abused males (Bacchus, Mezey, & Bewley, 2006; Burch & Gallup, 2004; Chambliss, 2008; Decker, Martin, & Moracco, 2004), and doubts about paternity is factor for IPV within the relationship (Bacchus, Mezey, & Bewley, 2006). In a study of convicted IPV perpetrators, men with pregnant partners have reported significantly higher sexual jealousy scores than men whose partners are not pregnant (Burch & Gallup, 2004).

Some researchers have demonstrated that due to partners’ jealousy of other close

relationships, abused pregnant women are often socially isolated by their male partners from family, friends and other social support systems, by their male partners (Bacchus, Mezey, & Bewley, 2006; Noel & Yam, 1992; Pulido, 2001; Wiemann, Agurcia, Berenson, Volk, & Rickert, 2000). This social isolation, in turn, decreases pregnant women’s social support network (Taillieu & Brownridge, 2010). Evidence shows that

insufficient social support is associated with an increased risk of experiencing IPV during pregnancy (Farid, Saleem, Karim, & Hatcher, 2008; Jeanjot, Barlow, & Rozenberg, 2008; Peedicayil et al., 2004; Ruiz-Pérez et al., 2006; Valladares, Pena, Persson, & Hogberg, 2005). Due to male partner’s sexual jealousy and suspicion of infidelity, a male partner tries to isolate his spouse from others, and that contributes to limiting her from receiving maternal healthcare services. Moreover, a lack of social support and husband’s controlling behaviours might play a significant role in

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developing antepartum and postpartum depression that could lead to early termination of EBF during the postpartum period (Almond, 2009; Annagür, Annagür, Şahin, Örs, & Kara, 2013; Beydoun, Beydoun, Kaufman, Lo, & Zonderman, 2012). In summary, existing studies provide supportive evidence in favour of evolutionary psychology theory as a potential explanation for IPV during pregnancy.

Evolutionary psychology theories are not without criticism. In evolutionary psychology, the individual is regarded to be independent of socio-cultural factors (Brinkmann, 2011). This theory also ignores the importance of culture. Nonetheless, suspicion of infidelity and sexual jealousy lead to IPV, and as such, it seems relevant to consider evolutionary psychology theory when accounting for IPV during pregnancy in Bangladesh.

This research will examine the three theories discussed above to gauge whether they hold for the women of Bangladesh in explaining IPV during pregnancy. Dowry demands by husband, low level of social support, and women’s decision-making

autonomy explore the application of feminist theories. Correlates such as childhood exposure to violence and witnessing parental violence during childhood explore the utilisation of social learning theory. Husband’s controlling behaviour and unintended pregnancy pertain to evolutionary psychology theory.