Capt V goes on to explain shear force, which can be caused by disproportional weight distribution. This information is available on the
stability computer but, without knowing why, the computer readings will make no sense and will not be useful. He says that this is called the classical beam theory and gives them the formula for the bending moments. He says that they need to understand the formula but not the details as that is for the marine engineers. He then asks if on a beam there is a point where there is no bending moment. Next, Capt V moves to Hook’s law, that is, the elasticity of a spring. Capt V says, “if I keep hitting your face constantly it will be deformed”. The cadets laugh. The same thing, he says, happens to steel. This also impacts the type of steel used in ship construction. He uses Hooks Law to derive the formula for elasticity.
[Vignette 1]
The vignette above captures the use of academic principles, in this case, physics, to learn seafaring. An essential aspect of learning at the training center was the emphasis on learning the academic principles behind work practices on board. In the vignette, Capt V explains shear force, which is caused by disproportional weight distribution caused by cargo and ballast water. The shear force on the ship is calculated by a stability computer, but knowledge of what causes the stress (the why of it) is needed in order to make sense of the calculations of the computer. He uses related principles of physics, such as Hook’s Law and bending moments to link the shipboard work to physics further. Through learning these principles of physics the cadets are learning how cargo should be loaded (to reduce the shear stress on the ship within her design limits), and they are learning about the reasoning behind this way of doing, that is, knowing why. Knowing why is important to appreciate the operating limits of the equipment and design considerations. For example, by understanding the physics of it, one can appreciate the safe working load of a crane and what can happen if this is exceeded.
There are two reasons why math and physics or scientific principles are used to explain the work practices on board. Firstly, grounding in academic principles might help legitimize certain courses of action to the newcomers. The courses of action refer to the potential ways of doing. At CCTC the courses of action are the ways of doing that the newcomers will engage in on board the ship. The cadets at CCTC have completed three years of maritime education prior to entering the training center. However, they have not been to sea yet. Due to their background in maritime education, they are more familiar with the academic style of learning than with shipboard practices. Hence, linking shipboard practices with principles of physics or math gives the cadets a familiar line of reasoning from which to draw distinctions.
The second concerns the generalizability of scientific principles. Ships are isolated workplaces. Sampson (2013: 119) notes, ‘Ships are places where displaced people come together and form occupational communities, which are themselves isolated from wider society.’ The isolation that Sampson notes, is both social and physical. If something goes wrong on board, help might not be readily available because of physical distance from shore and from other ships. Moreover, if design limits are exceeded, an accident can take place. In reaction to this, the company seeks to ensure that the community on board is self-sufficient in so far as possible. Furthermore, the forces at play on board are vastly different to those found at CCTC or in the average workplace. Accidents on board, if they happen, can be costly in terms of lives and finances. Hence, safety culture and knowing why, potentially, something has gone wrong, become important aspects of practice.
The above findings highlight the importance of knowing why as part of learning the practices of seafaring. In learning the theoretical principles of navigation, the cadets are connecting the theory with the shipboard
practices. Consequently, they are learning new distinctions based on an understanding of the rationale as to why certain courses of action are correct or incorrect. Cadets, at CCTC, need to demonstrate that they understand these theoretical principles, this necessity of understanding is described in the vignette below.
Capt V continues working out the formula wanting to get it to the point where they first started. He asks them what conclusion they can follow, stating that this formula is what the entire ship construction and their lives on board are based on. Asking them, also, to state what the neutral axis of the ship is, one of the cadets states that there is no pressure on the neutral axis of the ship. Another states, that the larger the moment of inertia, the lesser the bending stress. Capt V says that he is correct and then asks him why this is so. The cadet is silent. Another cadet states that because of the mass. Capt V asks what the mass is? The cadet is silent. Capt V exclaims – “the area, gentlemen!” The larger the area, the less the bending stress. All of this affects the design of the ship, the reason why there is a deck.
[Vignette 2]
For the trainers at CCTC, skillfulness (Hislop, 2008) was demonstrated through the cadets’ understanding of theoretical principles and being able to link these principles to the practices of navigation. For example, in the vignette above, Capt V asks if on the ship there is a neutral axis, and the cadet is unable to answer the “why is this so?” Part of becoming legitimate peripheral participants in the practices of the seafaring involves learning to be competent in the manner acceptable and recognizable to the group of old-timers at CCTC (Schatzki, 2005). The competence at CCTC is gauged through the training and assessments which tested the cadets on knowing the answer to “why and where did it come from?” and they need to give a reasonable account for why this is so (Gherardi et al, 1998). An example of the types of question asked is illustrated below.
The ship is bound to Norfolk, US East Coast. Departure: 17.01.2014 – 0600 UTC. Ship’s speed: slow steaming = 14 knots
Calculate the GC distance and initial course from Lisbon to Norfolk.
Start: N38°33’ W 009° 26,6’ End: N37°07’ W 075° 40.’
What is your ETA for Norfolk
How many climate zones you are passing? See route planning in the appendix.
How many load line zones does the ship pass?
To what load line zone must the ship be loaded in Lisbon? Explain your answer.
Which wind cell or cells are affecting the voyage? [Excerpt from Exam, Document]
As can be noted from the questions above, the cadets were being required to use their knowledge of math and physics theory to be able to calculate the great circle (GC) distance. Hence, they are learning why through theory and how through the calculation they will perform on board.
The difference between knowing what, or that, and knowing how has been the subject of previous practice studies (Brown & Duguid, 1998; Orlikowski, 2002; Duguid 2005), and studies of situated learning have concentrated on knowing how (Orlikowski, 2002: 250). Alternately, Tsoukas and Vladimirou (2001) state that, for individuals to exercise judgements, they need to have an appreciation for theory which allows an individual to take findings across contexts. Participating in the practices at CCTC cannot prepare the newcomers for every situation on board. However, part of the process of transition is learning to interpret how the rules apply to the situation at hand and this is only possible if newcomers are aware of the rules and the rationale behind them. Awareness of the rules
and their application on board is realized through making connections between the why and the how aspects of courses of action. Consequently, connecting knowing why and knowing how helps newcomers legitimize certain courses of action which, in turn, helps them draw distinctions about the correct and incorrect courses of action on board. The link between making why-how connections and drawing distinctions can be conceived in Tsoukas & Vladimirou’s (2001) terms as do ‘this’ not ‘that’ because of the rationale behind the rules. The rationale behind the rules allows newcomers to understand why a particular course of action is more appropriate than others. Learning the rationale behind the rules is important because it is what allows newcomers to interpret, cope with, follow or unfollow rules in a given situation (Schatzki, 2005).
Cadets connect theory and practice using dialogical and material apparatus. That is, stories, anecdotes, diagrams, simulators and photos, become concrete representations of the future world of practice that the cadets are yet to experience. Through using dialogical (anecdotes and narratives) and material apparatus (diagrams, photos, simulators) newcomers envision the how-why connections. This is demonstrated in the example below. In the example, the instructor is explaining the importance of squat calculations to the cadets using narratives of famous ship accidents where the captains did not calculate the squat1 correctly.
Capt D narrates the story of a passenger ship - Queen Elizabeth 2 which grounded in 1992. They had a problem with the navigation chart and the increase in the draft, because of the effect of squat, which caused the ship to run aground. He then gives a newer example of the Costa Concordia and asks the cadets if they know why the ship ran aground. The captain
1 Squat Effect is when the ship moves through shallow water, because of the displacement of water an area of low pressure is created under the ship which pulls it closer to the seabed.
wanted to create a “wow factor” by allowing people onshore to see the ship and the passengers close-to, and so deviated from the planned route, moving closer to the shore; in the process, they hit a rock and ran aground. The captain did not check the under-keel clearance and did not know the squat. Capt D shows them a photo of the vessel as it was sinking. [CCTC Field Notes 1st Block]
The accidents of the Queen Elizabeth 2 and Costa Concordia are famous, not only within the industry but also to the general population. In telling the story of the Queen Elizabeth 2 and Costa Concordia, the instructor ties the narrative to the importance of correct squat calculations. Through the narration of these incidents the cadets form connective visions of the theoretical principles, that is, the squat calculation and the importance of these calculations on board. Hence, knowing why squat is calculated in the certain way helps newcomers understand how squat should and should not be calculated. Using narratives within the context of the classroom serves as a warning to the cadets of what should or should not be done in certain situations on board.
4.1.2 Learning through Connecting Past, Present, and
Future
Don imagines what it will be like when he starts to sail. He has not seen a ship outside of pictures and the TV; it is difficult for him to imagine what life and work on board will involve. The instructors at CCTC try to incorporate images of ships, diagrams, or stories to show them what ships and the work on board are. There are also photos of cadets working on board, of ship decks and engine rooms on some walls around CCTC, which help give a sense of what being on board is like. Don is also aware that the daily routine at CCTC, the muster in the morning, the meal and break times
and the curfew are there to help make the shift to life on board. [Vignette 3]
Through participation at CCTC, cadets also start connecting their present training practices with future work practices. They start connecting the work that they will do on board during their sea-service contracts and the work that they will do as officers. In the vignette above we see that Don forms these connections through using photos, diagrams and stories, which help him envision what life and work on board will be like in the future. Connection between past, present and future practices is noted in the following example. The extract below is from classroom observation where the cadets were learning about painting the ship. On board, chipping (de- rusting) and painting is a common task given to cadets; they are asked to chip the old paint off the deck, de-rust it if required, apply primer and then paint it which is why they are learning the theory behind it at this stage. The topic deals with the corrosion of steel. The ship’s hull and most of the equipment on board is made of steel and sea water is very corrosive. Paint prevents corrosion and if the paint is missing, the steel will corrode and waste away. This is a task that will not be performed by the cadets on board; rather, it takes place when the ship goes to dry dock, and it is the duty of the chief officer to check the paint.
Next, they move onto self-polishing copolymers. These ensure that along with the biocides the paint layers also reduce, which means that the surface will remain smooth, leading to less resistance on the underwater area. This topic deals mainly with the underwater area. The underwater area requires nine layers, unlike the deck area which has five layers. Capt G asks them why this is so. First, the cadets say it is because of water; then one of the cadets amends his answer by saying that on deck you can keep an eye on and maintain the paint, but you cannot inspect the underwater area, which is why it requires more layers of primers and antifouling with self-polishing
effect paint. Now they also check the underwater paint and fuel consumption, so charterer and owners want the ships in the dry dock more frequently for underwater painting. Dry docking is a highly expensive event so the ship owner will want to send a ship to a dry-dock only when required by regulations (once in five years). So, the paint thickness is calculated to last for five years. It is the duty of the chief officer, during dry-dock, to check that the paint is correctly applied as per the ship’s paint scheme.
[CCTC Field Notes, 1st Block]
The cadets will not be using the information provided for years to come, and here they are not learning how to perform the check that the chief officer must perform. However, they are learning about other aspects of the practice. They are learning about who they, as officers, will be accountable to (Wenger, 1998) in the future, that is, the owner of the vessel, the port authorities and the charterers. Moreover, they learn about part of their potential future duties as chief officers, that is, looking after the ship in dry dock and checking the paint scheme. Here the cadets are connecting what is being taught at CCTC, that is, the present, to their future work practices, chipping and painting on board. Furthermore, they are making connections between what is being learned now and what might be useful for them to know as chief officers. Through connecting between the present and the future, the cadets are learning to draw distinctions in the here and now, as to what is required of them as they progress towards fuller participation. Here, they are gaining an understanding of what courses of action they need to take in the future to move towards fuller participation, both as a cadet transitioning to officer and as chief officer transitioning to captain. In doing so, cadets are starting to learn the course of their inbound trajectory (Wenger, 1998) in the practices of seafaring.
Cadets connect the past, present, and future trajectories through envisioning by using narratives shared by old-timers in the classroom or in nautical
publications. The interview extract below seeks to highlight narratives as apparatus used by the cadets to envision future practices. The narrative was accessed through reading nautical publications. Stories in nautical publications enable cadets to envision the possibilities of performing as officers on board the ship. The captain in the narrative below used the effect of squat to reduce the height of the ship so that it could pass under the bridge. In this case, reading the story created a sense of awe in the cadet, a sense of possibility that in the future he could perform such actions as well.
I: Do you read any online journals about the industry or online publications?
I5-C3: Yes. One reason that I have become superior is what I have read before, I have an article that I read on how amazing the captain was on this ship. They were transiting in the canal, the ship, and there was a bridge and there is, ship is supposed to be hitting that bridge but somehow, they didn’t. I was amazed about how the captain did that.
I: Yeah, yeah, I remember this example. I read it today but I can’t remember the name of the ship and then he used the effect of squat, right, to make sure that the ship …
I5-C3: … that it will pass under the bridge. I was amazed by this. For me that story wow! I can do that.
In the example above, the cadet is connecting the present participation at CCTC, learning squat calculations with his future participation as an officer being able to use squat to maneuver the ship to safety. In making these connections he is able to envision the possible courses of action available to him and how his present understanding of squat calculations can help him perform dangerous maneuvers in the correct way as an officer. Here, we see the link between connecting present and future work practices and drawing distinctions because through connecting the cadet is learning how
the theory he is learning in the present, that is, how to calculate the squat, can be used to perform certain courses of actions in the future, that is, using the effect of squat to help the ship pass under a bridge. As drawing distinctions about courses of actions is related to do this or that, the cadet is