1 S. W. Colford, Athlete endorsers fouled by slaying, „Advertising Age", 19 marca
1990, s. 64.
2 L. T. Barrett, Race-baiting wins again, „Time", 19 listopada 1990, s. 43.
Statystyki pochodzą z ostatnich numerów „American Demographics"i „BrilTs Content". L. Bogart, Commercial Culture, New York, Oxford UnWersity Press 1995; M. F. Jacobson, L. A. Mazur, Marketing madness, Boulder, CO, Westview 1995; A. Ries, J. Trout, Positioning: The
battie for your wind, New York, Warner 1981; D. A. Aaker, J. G. Myers, Advertising manage- ment, Winglewood Cliffs, NJ, Prentice Hali 1987. Opis środków masowego przekazu zob.: A. R.
Pratkanis, The social psychology and mass Communications: An American Perspective, w: States
of mind: American and post-Soviet perspectives on contemporary issues in psychology,
D. F. Halpern, A. Voiskounsky (red.), New York, Oxford University Press 1997, s. 126-159.
4 E. B. Hilifield, Era of persuasion: American thought and culture 1521-1680, Boston,
Twayne 1989.
3 C. Bahne, The complete guide to Boston 's Freedom Trail, Cambridge, MA, Newtowne
1990.
6 Znakomita historia reklamy zob.: S. Fox, The mirror makers, New York, Morrow 1984.
1 Zob.: H. F. Adams, Adyertising and its mental laws, New York, Macmillan 1916; A. T.
Poffenberger, Psychology in Adyertising, New York, McGraw-Hill 1932; W. D. Scott, The
psychology of advertising, Boston, Smali, Maynard 1917; D. Starch, Principles of adyertising, New
York, McGraw-Hill 1923.
8 G. Creel, How we advertised America, New York, Harper and Brothers 1920.
9 Analiza natury propagandy i perswazji w demokracji zob.: A. R. Pratkanis, M. E. Turner,
chiinge, „Journal of Social Issues" 52, 1996, s. 187-205; J. M. Sproule, Clmnnels of propaganda,
Bloomington, IN, EDINFO 1994; J. M. Sproule, Propaganda and democracy: The American
experience of media and mass persuasion, New York, Cambridge University Press 1997.
10 J. Marcus, Mesoamerican writing systems, Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press 1992.
" Oczywiście obywatelami mogli być tylko nieliczni Grecy (w większości zamożni mężczy- źni). Znakomite analizy perswazji w starożytnej Grecji i Rzymie zob.: M. Billig, Arguing and
thinking, New York, Cambridge University Press 1987; G. A. Kennedy, The art of persuasion in Greece, Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press 1963; G. A. Kennedy, The art of rhetoric in the Roman worki, Princeton, NJ, Princeton UnWeristy Press 1972; G. A. Kennedy, Classical Rhetoric,
Chapel Hill, University of North Carolina Press 1980; N. Maccoby, The new science of rhetoric, w: The science of huinan communication, W. Schramm (red.), New York, Basic Books 1963.
12 Cyceron, De iiwentione, Cambridge, MA, Loeb Classics, 1949, s. 3. 13 Ries, Trout 1981, zob.: przyp. 3.
14 Zob. także: R. B. Cialdini, Influence, New York, Morrow 1984.
2. Tajemniczy wpływ
1 Znakomite opowieści na temat wpływu Mesmera na myśl amerykańską zob.: R. C. Fuller,
Mesmerism and the American cure of souls, Philadelphia, University of PennsyWania Press 1982;
R. C. Fuller, Americans and the unconscious, New York, Oxford University Press 1986.
2 Zob.: R. Darnton, Mesmerism and the end of the Enlightenment in France, Cambridge,
MA, Harvard University Press 1986; S. J. Gould, BulJy for brontosaurus, New York, Norton 1991.
3 Omówienie faktów dotyczących hipnozy zob.: R. A. Baker, They cali it hypnosis,
Buffalo, NY, Prometheus 1990; Hypnosis: The cognitive-behavioral perspecdve, N. P. Spanos, J. F. Chaves (red.), Buffalo, NY, Prometheus 1989.
4 F. Toennies, On sociology: Pure, applied and empirical, Chicago, University of Chicago
Press 1971 (wyd. oryg. 1887).
5 Znakomita analiza teorii „magicznego pocisku"(zwanej także teorią „igły hipodermicz-
nej"lub „pasa transmisyjnego") zob.: M. L. DeFleur, S. Ball-Rokeach, Theońes of mass com-
munication, White Plains, NY, Longman 1989.
6 J. B. Watson, Psychology from the standpoint of the behaviorist, Philadelphia,
Lippincott 1919.
7 W. D. Scott, The psychology of advertising, Boston, Smali, Maynard 1917.
8 G. LeBon, The Crowd, New York, Viking 1960 (wyd. oryg. 1895). Pierwsza prezentacja
tej hipotezy zob.: S. Sighele, La folia delinquente, Turyn, Fratelli Bocca 1891. Najnowsze omówienie zob.: C. McPhail, The myth of the maddening crowd, New York, Aldine de Gruyter 1991; J. van Ginneken, Crowds, psychology, and politics, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press 1992.
9 V. Packard, The hidden persuaders, New York, MacKay 1957.
10 E. Dichter, Handbok of consumer motivations, New York, McGraw-Hill 1964.
" P. Lazarsfeld, B. Berelson, H. Gaudet, The people's choice, New York, Columbia University Press 1948. Zob. także: B. Berelson, P. Lazarsfeld, W. McPhee, Voting, Chicago, University of Chicago Press 1954.
12 J. Klapper, The effects of mass communication, Glencoe, IL, Free Press 1960; W. J.
McGuire, The myth ofmassive media impact. Savagings and salvagings, w: Public communication
and behavior, G. Comstock (red.), t. 1, San Diego, CA, Academic Press 1986, s. 175-257;
M. Schudson, Advertising the uneasy persuasion, New York, Basic Books 1984.
13 J. Garda, R. A. Koelling, Relation of cue to conseąuence in avoidance learning,
„Psychometric Science" 4, 1966, s. 123-124; L. Festinger, J. M. Carlsmith, Cognitive conseąuen-
ces of forced compliance, „Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology" 58, 1959, s. 203-210.
14 J. Marks, The search for the „Manchurian candidate", New York, Norton 1979.
13 A. Politz, „Motivation research"from a research viewpoint, „Public Opinion Quarterly",
20, 1957, s. 663-667.
16 C. I. Hovland, A. A. Lumsdaine, F. D. Sheffield, Experiments on mass communication,
Princeton, NJ, Princeton Unwersity Press 1949; C. I. Hovland, I. L. Janis, H. H. Kelley,
Communication and persuasion, New Haven, CT, Yale University Press 1953; C. I. Hovland, The order of presentation in persuasion, New Haven, CT, Yale University Press 1957; C. I. Hovland, I. L.
Janis, Personality and persuasibility, New Haven, CT, Yale University Press 1959; C. I. Hovland, M. J. Rosenberg, Attitude organization and change, New Haven, CT, Yale University Press 1960; M. Sheriff, C. 1. Hovland, Social judgement, New Haven, CT, Yale University Press 1961. Przegląd zob.: W. J. McGuire, The naturę ofatdtudes and attitude change, w: Handbook of social psychology, G. Lindzey, E. Aronson (red.), wyd. 2, t. 3, Reading, MA, Addison-Wesley 1969, s. 136-314.
17 G. Gerbner, L. Gross, M. Morgan, N. Signorielli, Living with television: The dynamics of
cultivation process, w: Perspectives on media effects, J. Byrant, D. Zillman (red.), Hillsdale, NJ, Erlbaum
1982, s. 17—40; S. lyengar, D. R. Kinder, News thatmatters, Chicago, University of Chicago Press 1987.
18 J. P. Jones, When ads work: New proof that advertising triggers sale, New York,
Lexington 1995.
19 J. Zaller, The myth of massive media impact revived: New support for a discredited idea,
w: Political persuasion and attitude change, D. C. Mutz, P. M. Sniderman, R. A. Brody, (red.), Ann Arbor, University of Michigan Press 1996, s. 17-78.
20 Zob.: Psychological foundations of attitudes, A. G. Greenwald, T. C Brock, T. M. Ostrom
(red.), New York, Academic Press 1968; R. E. Petty, J. T. Cacioppo, Attitude and persuasion:
Classic and contemporary approaches, Dubucjue, IA, Brown 1981; Cognitive responses in persua- sion, R. E. Petty. T. M. Ostrom, T. C. Brock (red.) Hillsdale, NJ, Erlbaum 1981; R. E. Pety,
J. T. Cacioppo, Communication and persuasion, New York, Springer-Verlag 1986; Attitude structu-
re and function, A. R. Pratkanis, S. J. Breckler, A. G. Greenwald (red.), Hillsdale, NJ, Erlbaum 1989.
21 G. G. Liddy, Will, New York, St. Martin's 1980.
22 Więcej szczegółów na temat tych zasad zob.: Człowiek istota społeczna, przekład
J. Radzicki, Warszawa, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN 2000 (zwł. rozdz. 4 i 5).
3. Bezmyślna propaganda, rozważna perswazja
1 P. W. Burton, Which ad pulled best, Chicago, Crain 1981; J. Caples, Tested advertising
methods, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, Prentice Hali 1974; D. L. Loudon, A. J. Delia Bitta, Consumer behavior, New York, McGraw-Hill 1984; D. J. Howard, The influence of verbal responses to common greetings on compliance behavior: The foot-in-mouth effect, „Journal of Applied Social
Psychology" 20, 1990, s. 1185-1196; D. Ogilvy, Ogilvy on advertising, New York, Crown 1983.
2 Loudon, Delia Bitta 1984, zob.: przyp. 1.
3 E. Langer, A. Blank, B. Chanowitz, 77je mindlessness of ostensiiby thouhgtful action: The
role of „placebic" Information in interpersonal interaction, „Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology" 36, 1978, s. 635-642.
4 I. L. Preston, The tangled web they weave: Truth, falsity, and advertisers, Madison,
University of Wisconsin Press 1994.
5 M. Santos, C. Leve, A. R. Pratkanis, Hey buddy, can you spare 17 cents? Mindful
persuasion and the pique techniąue, „Journał of Applied Social Psychology" 24, 1994, s. 755-764.
6 R. E. Petty, J. T. Cacioppo, The elaboration likelihood model of persuasion w: Advances
in experimental social psychology, L. Berkowitz (red.), t. 19, New York, Academic Press 1986,
s. 123-205; R. E. Petty, J. T. Cacioppo, Communication and persuasion: Central and peripheral
routes to attitude change, New York, Springer-Verlag 1986. Zob. także: S. Chaiken, Heuristic versus systematic Information processing and the use of source versus message cues in persuasion,
„Journal of Personality and Social Psychology" 38, 1980, s. 752-766; S. Chaiken, A. Liberman, A. Eagly, Heuristic versus systematic Information processing within and beyond the persuasion
context, w: Unintended thought, J. S. Uleman, J. A. Bargh (red.), New York, Guilford 1989,
s. 212-252.
7 R. E. Petty, J. T. Cacioppo, R. Goldman, Personal involvement as a determinant of
argument-based persuasion, „Journal of Personality and Social Psychology" 41, 1981, s. 847-855.
9 S. T. Friske, S. E. Taylor, Social cognition, New York, McGraw-Hill 1991.
4. Zwierzą skłonne do racjonalizacji
1 L. Festinger, H. W. Riecken, S. Schachter, When prophecy fails, New York, Harper
and Row 1956.
2 L. Festinger, A theory of cognitive dissonance, Stanford, CA, Stanford University
Press 1957.
3 E. Aronson, The theory of cognitive dissonance: A current perspective, w: Advances in
expeńmental social psychology, L. Berkowitz (red.), t.4, New York, Academic Press 1969, s. 1-34.
4 A. R. Pratkanis, M. E. Turner, Groupthink and preparedness for the Lotna Pięta earthąua-
ke: A social identity maintenance analysis of causes and piwentions, w: Research on groups and teams: Groups in context, B. Manix, M. Neale, R. Wageman (red.), t. 2, Greenwich, CT, JAI Press
1999, s. 115-136. Opis badania laboratoryjnego zob.: M. E. Turner, A. R. Pratkanis, P. Probasco, C. Leve, Threat, cohesion and group effectiveness: Testing a social identity maintenance perspecti-
ve on groupthink, „Journal of Personality and Social Psychology" 63, 1992, s. 781-796.
3 R. B. Cialdini, D. Schroeder, Increasing compliance by legitimizing paltry contributions:
When even a penny helps, „Journal of Personality and Social Psychology" 34, 1976, s. 599-604.
6 J. Harris, Hiroshima: A study of science, politics, and the ethics of war, Menlo Park, CA,
Addison-Wesley 1970.
7 Analiza sposobów zapobiegania i oraz zmniejszania szkodliwych efektów redukcji zbioro-
wego dysonansu zob.: M. E. Turner, A. R. Pratkanis, Social identity maintenance prescriptions for
preventing groupthink: Reducing identity protection and enhancing intellectual conflict, „Inter-
national Journal of Conflict Management" 5, 1994, s. 254-270; M. E. Turner, A. R. Pratkanis,
Mitigating groupthink by stimulating constructive conflict, w: Using conflict in organizations,
C. K. W. De Dreu, E. Van de Yliert (red.), Thousand Oaks CA, Sagę 1997, s. 53-71.
5. Cztery techniki wywierania wpływu
1 Doskonalą analiza orędzia gettysburskiego Lincolna zob.: G. Wills, Lincoln at Gettysburg:
Words that remade America, New York, Simon and Schuster 1992. Dyskusja nt. życia i czasów
Abrahama Lincolna zob.: L. G. Bursey, Abraham Lincoln, w: Popular images of American
presidents, W. C. Spragens (red.), New York, Greenwood 1988, s. 67-103; R. Hofstadter, The American political tradition, New York, Knopf 1948; K. 0'Reilly, Nixon'spiano: Presidents and racialpolitics from Washington to Clinton, New York, Free Press 1995; J. Tebel, S. M. Watts, The press and the presidency, New York, Oxford University Press 1985; D. Zarefsky, Lincoln, Douglas, and skwery: In the crucible public debatę, Chicago, University of Chicago Press 1990.
2 Cyt. za: P. D. Colford, The Rush Limbaugh story, New York, St. Martin's 1993, s. 287.
Omówienie życia i taktyk wywierania wpływu stosowanych przez Rusha Limbaugha zob.: T. Brokaw, J. Fallows, K. H. Jamieson, M. Matalin, T. Russert, Talk show democracy, „Press/Politics" 2, 1997, s. 4-12; P. D. Colford, The Rush Limbaugh story, New York, St. Martin's 1992; A. Franken, Rush Limbaugh is a big fat idiot, New York, Delacorte 1996; P. Laufer, Inside talk radio, New York, Birch Lane Press 1995; R. Limbaugh, The way things
ought to be, New York, Pocket Books 1992; R. Limbaugh, See, I told you so, New York, Pocket
Books 1993; R. Perkins, Logic and Mr. Limbaugh, Chicago, Open Court 1995; S. Rendall, J. Naureckas, J. Cohen, The way things aren't: Rush Libaugh's reign of error, New York, New Press 1995; A. L. Sturgeon, C. Blair, J. Merriam, The Rush Limbaugh Show: A content analysis, masz., Santa Cruz, University of California 1995.
3 Szczegóły dotyczące sprawy Ingrama zob.: R. Ofshe, E. Watters, Muking monsters, New
York, Charles Scribner's Sons 1994; L. Wright, Remembering Satan, New York, Knopf 1994.
4 Arystoteles, Retoryka. Poetyka, przekład H. Podbielski, Warszawa, Wydawnictwo Nauko-
we PWN 1988.
5 Fascynujący przykład wykorzystania Deklaracji Niepodległości do odrzucenia niewolnic-
twa zob.: F. Douglass, Fredeńck Douglass'sgreatest speeches: The meaning of 4th ofJuly for the
Negro [nagrane przez Freda Morsella; zapis na kasecie TBM CDJ001 1], New Canaan, CT, TBM
Records 1992 (przemówienie z 5 lipca 1852). Frederick Douglas, były niewolnik, poruszył wiele wątków, które później pojawiły się w orędziu gettysburskim Lincolna.
6 Cyt. za: Wills 1992, s. 38-39, zob.: przyp. 1. 7 Wills 1992, s. 100, zob.: przyp. 1.
8 Cyt. za: Colford 1993, s. 156, zob.: przyp. 2.
9 Opis wywoływania fałszywych wspomnień podczas terapii i ich wpływu na życie rodziny
i wspólnoty zob.: M. Gardner, The tragedies of false memories, „Skeptical Inquirer" 18, 1994, s. 464-470; E. Goldstein, Confabulations, Boca Raton, FL, Upton Books 1994; M. Johnston,
Spectral evidence: The Raniona case: Incest, memory, and truth on trial In Napa Valley, Boston,
Houghton Mifflin 1997; E. F. Loftus, K. Ketcham, The myth of repressed memories, New York, St. Martins 1994; Ofshe, Waters 1994, zob.: przyp. 3; N. P. Spanos. Multiple identities and
memories: A sociocognitive perspective, Washington, DC, American Psychological Association
1997; J. S. Victor, Satanic panie: The creation of a contemporary legend, Chicago, Open Court 1993; H. Wakefield, R. Underwager, Return of the furies, Chicago, Open Court 1994; Wright 1994, zob.: przyp. 3.
10 E. Bass, L. Davis, The courage to heal: A guide to women survivors of child sexual
abuse, New York, Harper and Row 1988; R. Fredrickson, Repressed memories, New York,
Fireside/Parkside 1992; M. Smith, L. Pazder, Michelle remembers, New York, Pocket Books 1980. " Cyt. za: Victor 1993, s. 195, zob.: przyp. 9.
12 E. F. Loftus, K. Ketcham 1994, zob.: przyp. 9; E. F. Loftus, 77;e reality of repressed
memories, „American Psychologist" 48, 1993, s. 518-537; E. F. Loftus, G. F. Loftus, On the permanence of stored memories, „American Psychologist" 35, 1980, s. 409-420.
13 L. M. Janes, J. M. Olson, Jeer pressures: The behavioral effects of observing ridicule of
others, „Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin" 26, 2000, s. 474^85.
14 Analiza właściwego postępowania terapeutycznego zob.: J. Kramer, D. Alstad, The guru
papers: Mask of authoritarian powei; Berkeley, CA, North Atlantic Books/Frog 1993; M. T.
Singer, J. Lalich, Crazy therapies, San Francisco, Jossey-Bass 1996.
b K. L. Hobden, J. M. Olson, From jest to antipathy: Disparagement humor as a source of
dissonance-motivated attitude change, „Basic and Applied Social Psychology" 15, 1994,
s. 239-249; G. R. Maio, J. M. Olson, J. E. Bush, Tellingjokes that disparage social groups: Effects
on thejoke teller's stereotypes, „Journal of Applied Social Psychology" 27, 1997, s. 1986-2000.
16 Cyt. za: Laufer 1995, s. 245, zob.: przyp. 2.
6. Słowa, które mają wpływ na ludzi
' D. Bem, Beliefs, attitudes, and human affairs, Belmont, CA, Brooks/Cole 1970.
2 I. P. Levin, G. J. Gaeth, How consumers are affected by the frame of attribute information
3 A. M. Lee, E. B. Lee, The fine art of propaganda, New York, Harcourt, Brace 1939;
Institute for Propaganda Analysis, How to detect propaganda, „Propaganda Analysis" 1, 1937, przedruk w: R. Jackall, Propaganda, New York, New York University Press 1995; W. H. Werkmeister, An
introduction to critical thinking, Lincoln, NB, Johnsen, 1948.
4 S. Fox, The mirror makers, New York, Morrow 1984.
5 Z historią stosowania etykietek w polityce amerykańskiej można się zapoznać w pracy:
D. Green, Shaping political consciousness: The language or politics in America from McKinley to
Reagan, Ithaca, NY, Cornell UnWersity Press 1987.
6 W. Lutz, Doublespeak, New York, Harper i Row 1989.
7 D. G. Bromley, E. D. Silver, The Davidian tradition, w: Armageddon in Waco, S. A.
Wright (red.), Chicago, University of Chicago Press 1995, s. 43-72.
8 G. Orwell, 1984, New York, New American Library 1949, s. 246.
9 G. W. Allport, The naturę of prejudice, Reading, MA, Addison-Wesley 1954.
10 S. L. Bem, D. J. Bem, Does sex-biased job advertising „aid and abet" sex discrimination?,
„Journal of Applied Social Psychology" 3, 1973, s. 6-18. Więcej przykładów występującej w języku tendencyjności związanej z płcią można znaleźć w pracy: N. Henley, Molehill or
mountain? What we know and don't know about sex bias in language, w: Gender and thought,
M. Crawford, M. Gentry (red.), New York, Springer-Verlag 1989, s. 59-78.
" A. Ries, J. Trout, Positioning: The battie for your mind, New York, Warner 1981.
12 R. L. Miller, P. Brickman, D. Bolin, Attribution versus persuasion as a means for
modifying behavior, „Journal of Personality and Social Psychology" 31, 1975, s. 430-441.
13 Zob. przyp. 12.
14 M. Snyder, E. D. Tanke, E. Berscheid, Social perceptions and interpersonal behavior:
On the self-fulfilling naturę of social stereotypes, „Journal of Personality and Social Psychology"
35, 1977, s. 656-666.
15 Cytowane w pracy: O. Thomson, Mass persuasion in history, Edinburgh, Paul Harris
1977, s. III.
7. Obrazy w naszych głowach
' W. Lippmann, Public opinion, New York, Harcourt, Brace 1922.
2 W. Evans, Science and reason in film and television, „Skeptical Inąuirer" 20, 1996,
s. 45-48, 58; G. Gerbner, Science on television: How it affects public conceptions, „Issues in Science and Technology" 3, 1987, s. 109-115; G. Gerbner, L. Gross, M. Morgan, N. Signorielli,
Living with television: The dynamics of the cultivation process, w: Perspectives on media effects,
J. Bryant, D. Zillman (red.), Hillsdale, NJ, Erlbaum 1986, s. 17-40.
3 Cytowane w: „Newsweek", 6 grudnia 1982, s. 40.
4 C. Haney, J. Manzolati, Television criminology: Network illusions on criminal justice
realities, w: Readings about the social aniinal, E. Aronson (red.), New York, Freeman, wyd.
3, 1981, s. 125-136.
5 Zob.: L. Heath, Impact of newspaper crime reports on fear of crime: Multimethodologi-
cal investigation, „Journal of Personality and Social Psychology" 47, 1984, s. 263-276; D. G.
Linz, E. Donnerstein, S. Penrod, Effects of long-term exposure to violent and sexually degrading
depictions of women, „Journal of Personality and Social Psychology" 55, 1988, s. 758-768;
H. Lavine, D. Sweeney, S. H. Wagner, Depicting women as sex objects in television advertising:
Effects on body dissatisfaction, „Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin" 25, 1999,
s. 1049-1058; K. Hennigan, L. Heath, J. D. Wharton, M. Del Rosario, T. D. Cook, B. Calder,
Impact of the introduction of -television on crime in the United States: Empirical findings and theoretical implications, „Journal of Personality and Social Psychology" 42, 1982, s. 461-477.
6 S. Iyengar, D. R. Kinder, News that matters, Chicago, University of Chicago Press 1987.
7 E. M. Rogers, J. W. Dearing, Agenda-setting research: Where bas it been, where is it
going?, w: Communication yearbook, t. 11, J. A. Anderson (red.), Beverly Hills, CA, Sagę 1988,
s. 555-594. Doskonały przegląd badań nad tworzeniem programów można znaleźć w pracy: J. W. Dearing, E. M. Rogers, Agenda-setting, Thousand Oaks, CA, Sagę 1996.
8 M. E. McCombs, D. L. Shaw, The agenda setting function of mass media, „Public
Opinion Quarterly" 36, 1972, s. 176-187.
9 Cytowane w: R. L. Dilenschneider, Power and influence, New York, Prentice Hali 1990. 10 S. Iyengar, Is anyone responsible? How television frames political issues, Chicago,
University of Chicago Press 1991. Zob. także: J. J. Strange, C. C. Leung, How anecdotal accounts
in news and fiction can influence judgments of a social problem 's urgency, causes, and cures,
„Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin" 25, 1999, s. 436^149.
" R. P. Hart, The sound of leadership, Chicago, University of Chicago Press 1987.
12 A. R. Pratkanis, Propaganda and persuasion in the 1992 U.S. presidential election: What
are the implications for a democracy?, „Current World Leaders" 36, 1993, s. 341-362.
13 L Pfeffer, Power in organizations, Cambridge, MA, Ballinger 1981.
14 Cytowane w: M. F. Jacobson, L. A. Mazur, Marketing madness, Boulder, CO, Westview
1995, s. 15.
15 Cytowane w: Rogers i Dearing (1988) - zob. przyp. 7.
8. Saddam Husajn: Hitler z Bagdadu?
1 Opisy metafor używanych podczas wojny w Zatoce Perskiej w 1991 r. można znaleźć
w pracy: J. L. Conners, Hussein as enemy: The Persian Gulf war in political cartoons, „Press/Politics" 3, 1998, s. 96—114; T. Rohrer, The metaphorical logie of (political) rape: The new
wor(l)d order, „Metaphor and Symbolic Activity" 10, 1995, s. 115-137.
2 T. Gilovich, Seeing the past in the present: The effects of associations to familiar events
on judgments and decisions, „Journal of Personality and Social Psychology" 40, 1981, s. 797-808.
3 Omówienie zagadnień dot. metafor i myślenia zob.: J. W. Bowers, M. M. Oborn, Attitudinal
effects ofselected types of concluding metaphors in persuasive speeches, „Speech Monographs" 33,
1966, s. 147-155; R. W. Gibbs, The poeties of mind, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press 1994; J. T. Johnson, S. E. Taylor, The effect of metaphor on political attitudes, „Basic and Applied Social Psychology" 2, 1981, s. 305—316; G. Lakoff, Women, fire, and dangerous things, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1987; G. Lakoff, M. Johnson, Metaphors we live by, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1980; J. S. Mio, Metaphor, politics, and persuasion, w; Metaphor:
Implications and applications, J. S. Mio, A. N. Katz (red.), Mahwah, NJ, Erlbaum 1996, s. 127-146.
4 P. Kennedy, A declining empire goes to war, „Wall Street Journal" 24 stycznia 1991. 5 E. P. J. Corbett, Classical rhetoric for the modern student, New York, Oxford University
Press 1990, s. 105.
6 Cytowane w: „U.S. News and World Report", 6 maja 1991, s. 19. 7 What rod Bush win?, „Newsweek", 13 maja 1991, s. 27.
s Inny przykład to posługiwanie się metaforą wojenną przez Lyndona Johnsona w jego
„wojnie z ubóstwem". Metafora ta była przydatna do mobilizowania narodu i powstrzymywania krytyki, lecz ostatecznie zawiodła, gdy ubóstwo nie skapitulowało. Zob.: D. Zarefsky, President
Johnson's war on poverty, Tuscaloosa, University of Alabama Press 1986.
9. Wątpliwe sposoby perswazji
' D. Kahneman, A. Tversky, Choices, values, and frames, „American Psychologist" 39, 1984, s. 341-350.
•
2 B. E. Meyerowitz, S. Chaiken, The effect of message framing on breast self-examination
attitudes, intentions, and behavior, „Journal of Personality and Social Psychology" 52, 1987,
s. 500-510. Z analizą wykazującą, jakie znaczenie w perswazji ma sposób sformułowania komunikatu można zapoznać się w pracy: S. M. Smith, R. E. Petty, Message framing and
persuasion: A message processing analysis, „Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin" 22, 1996,
s. 257-268.
3 B. Lockerbie, S. A. Borrelli, Ouestion wording and public support for Contra aid,
1983-1986, „Public Opinion Quarteiiy" 54, 1990, s. 195-208. Zob. także: S. L. Payne, The arfof asking cjuestions, Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press 1951. Inne przykłady ilustrujące, jak
subtelne zmiany w sformułowaniach mogą powodować radykalne zmiany wyników podają: M. H. Birnbaum, How to show that 9>221: Collect judgments in a between-subjects design, „Psycho- logical Methods" 4, 1999, s. 243-249; G. R. Salancik, M. Conway, Attitude inferences from
salient and relevant cognkiye content about behavior, „Journal of Personality and Social Psycho-
logy" 32, 1975, s. 829-840; C. M. Steele, T. M. Ostrora, Perspective mediated attitude change:
When is indirect persuasion morę effective than direct persuasion?, „Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology" 29, 1974, s. 737-741.
4 W. J. Mitofsky, Making sense of the polis, „Brih"s Content" maj 1999, s. 34.
* G. Spence, Trial by fire, New York, Morrow 1986.
6 E. F. Loftus, J. C. Palmer, Reconstruction of automobile destruction: An example of the
interaction between language and memory, „Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior" 13,
1974, s. 585-589; E. F. Loftus, Shifting human color memory, „Memory and Cognition" 5, 1977, s. 696-699.
7 Institute for Propaganda Analysis, How to detect propaganda, „Propaganda Analysis" 1,
1937, przedruk w: R. R. R. Jackall, Propaganda, New York, New York University Press 1995.
8 Przykład pokazujący, jak stosować pytania retoryczne, by skłonić do myślenia o danej
kwestii, można znaleźć w pracy: R. E. Petty, J. T. Cacioppo, M. Heesacker, 772e use of rhetońcal
ąuestions in persuasion: A cognitive response analysis, „Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology" 40, 1981, s. 432-440.
10. Siła wabików
1 A. R. Pratkanis, P. H. Farquhar, S. Silbert, J. Hearst, Decoys produce contrast effects and
alter choice probabilities, rękopis niepublikowany, Santa Cruz, University of California, 1989.
Dodatkowe przykłady można znaleźć w pracach: J. Huber, J. W. Payne, C. Puto, Adding
asymmetrically dominated alternatives: Violations of regulańty and similarity, „Journal of Con-
sumer Research" 9, 1982, s. 90-98; T. Tyszka, Contextuai multiattribute decision rules, w: Human