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Education is not politically or racially neutral, as documented in the varying agendas throughout the history of Mexican American schooling. What is commonly understood as “traditional” and “mainstream” curriculum is more accurately defined as “whitestream”
schooling (Urrieta & Machado-Casas, 2013). Whitestream schooling is the curriculum material, pedagogy, and ideology based on white supremacy and the history of white Anglo-American domination (Urrieta & Machado-Casas, 2013). Whether administrators or educators employ whitestream schooling passively or actively, it is a tool for destroying or removing minority and Indigenous culture in the U.S. (Urrieta & Machado-Casas, 2013). Alternatives to whitestream schooling include multicultural education, ethnic studies, specific racial and ethnic studies, and global studies.
Multicultural education comes from the idea that students of all backgrounds deserve educational equality (Banks, 1989). It is an effort to reform education to ensure that all students equally have the opportunity to learn (Kim, 2011). Multicultural education is multifaceted, addressing minority group rights to cultural relevance and representation; used as a means to developing children’s autonomy; and designed to foster civil tolerance and acceptance, awareness of difference, and respect (Levinson, 2010).
Education scholar James Banks traced multicultural education roots as far back as African American historian George Washington Williams’ 1882 push for content integration, incorporating various cultures and perspectives in teaching (Banks, 1993). The early 1960s approach of integrating specific elements from racialized groups (Banks, 2013) has led to deeper recognition of the cultural assets students bring to the classroom (Ladson-Billings, 2011; Solórzano & Yosso, 2002). The phases did not evolve sharply from one specific time frame to another.
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“Multiethnic education” became multicultural education when scholars and educators incorporated other marginalized identities beyond race and ethnicity, such as class, gender, and sexuality (Banks, 2013). Multicultural education incorporates texts that reflect the diversity of American culture, including perspectives beyond the canon of White, European, male-authored works. The “contributions approach” focuses on heroes and holidays and does not change mainstream curriculum structure or goals; the “additive approach” incorporates content, concepts, themes and perspectives while also not changing mainstream curriculum structure or goals; the “transformation approach” designs a curriculum to incorporate the perspectives of ethnic groups to inform the concepts, issues, and themes; and the “social action approach” involves students in education and action to address social issues (Banks, 1989, p. 192).
Critiques of multicultural education have come from “critical multiculturalism,” “critical race theory,” and “anti-racism” (Kim, 2011). Critical multiculturalists note the potential for multicultural education to overlook the complicated, deep issues of racism by instead engaging in shallow celebrations of different cultures (Kim, 2011). Critical race theorists critique the limitations of multiculturalism, in that it does not allow for radical educational or social change (Kim, 2011). Finally, anti-racism advocates critique multicultural education for adding ethnic and racial cultural elements without addressing or dismantling racism in schools or society (Kim, 2011).
Ethnic studies includes the core elements of multicultural studies and includes “the study of race—a broad and mutable category in and of itself—and power. It is an intellectual project with roots in and connections to social movements and the quest for social justice” (Ramírez, 2013, pp. 1059-1060). Ethnic studies was born out of the Civil Rights movement, specifically out of the Third World Liberation Front strike at San Francisco State University in
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1968 (Ramírez, 2013). Ethnic studies include actively anti-racist and decolonizing curriculum and content, which work to reverse the oppressive conditions inflicted upon racialized students.
Ethnic studies instruction requires a broad view of the historic to contemporary realities of the United States. Educational standards are typically written from a white, Eurocentric stance with minimal attention and essentialist treatment related to racialized experiences and social contributions (Pérez Huber, Johnson, & Kohli, 2006). Ethnic studies curriculum developers and educators look outside of white, mainstream literature for resources to teach history and current topics that are inclusive of racialized people and experiences.
“Counterstories” are narratives that are outside of and sometimes challenge dominant narratives, specifically white, Eurocentric, and Anglocentric stories. They challenge dominant narratives around education and experience (Delgado, 1989; Delgado & Stefancic, 2012). Counterstories in the classroom allow educators to present a range of perspectives that reflect the diversity of their students’ experiences and introduce them to other experiences. Stories, in general, are powerful tools for empowerment and education for racialized and white students alike (Delgado & Stefancic, 2012; Sleeter, 2011). “…[S]tories describing the reality of black and brown lives can help readers to bridge the gap between their worlds and those of others. Engaging stories can help us understand what life is like for others…” (Delgado & Stefancic, 2012, pp. 47-48). Ethnic studies educators may use various pedagogical strategies, including critical pedagogy. Critical pedagogy is inspired by the work of Brazilian educator Paulo Freire, author of
Pedagogy of the Oppressed (1970). This text is based on an educational philosophy which critiqued the “banking” model used in education, asserting that students are not empty vessels into which teachers pour or “deposit” knowledge; rather, students are active participants in their own learning process (Freire, 1970). Students’ engagement and contributions add to the
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classroom environment and to their classmates’ learning. Critical educators use Pedagogy of the Oppressed to explore themes of education, class, power, individual development, and
development of critical thinking skills, as Freire described the relationship of the oppressor and the oppressed as a model restrictive and destructive to all involved parties (Freire, 1970). Parents are valuable contributors in multicultural and ethnic studies education, particularly by sharing their understanding of their own children with teachers to inform classroom strategies (Banks, 1989). Beyond critical pedagogy, culturally relevant pedagogy (Ladson-Billings, 1995) and culturally responsive pedagogy (Gay, 2000) are utilized within ethnic studies programs.