Based on the original model devised by Liden, Wayne, Zhao, and Henderson (2008), Liden, Panaccio, Hu, and Meuser further developed a servant leadership model that includes three main components: antecedent conditions, servant leader behaviours, and leadership outcomes (Figure 1.1). This model further elaborates the phenomenon of servant leadership and provides a framework for understanding its scope and complexities (Northouse, 2013, 225).
Antecedent Conditions
As shown on the left side of figure1.1, some existing conditions have a substantial impact on servant leadership, for example, context and culture, leader attributes, and follower receptivity.
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Context and Culture: Northouse is of the opinion that, “Servant leadership does not happen in a vacuum but occurs within a given organizational context and a particular culture” (Northouse, 2013, 226). These organizational and cultural backgrounds affect the way servant leadership is exercised in reality. For example, in the health care and hospitality industry, where service and care is their most important value, servant leadership is more likely to occur. Researchers have confirmed and found that servant leadership is positively correlated to employee organizational citizenship behaviour (i.e. followers’ actions that go beyond the basic requirements of their duties and help the overall functioning of the organization) (Wu and colleagues, 2013, 388-389). While in a military setting, where the norms differ, servant leadership may be performed differently or maybe it is impossible to practice servant leadership at all.
Servant Leadership
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Cultural background is another significant factor. According to Dierendonck, in cultures that are characterized by a strong humane orientation, which encourages and values justice/fairness, altruism, friendship, generosity, kindness and caring for others, leaders display higher attention to empowerment, interpersonal acceptance, and stewardship; these are essential characteristics of a servant leader (Dierndonck, 2011, 1245-1246). Dierendonck also found that in cultures with high ‘power distance’, one is expected to be more obedient to authority figures like parents, elders, and leaders. And organizations tend to be more centralized.
In such cultures, large differences in power are expected and accepted. On the contrary, in cultures with low power distance, decision-making is more decentralized, with less emphasis on formal respect and positional difference. In this kind of cultural context, developing servant leadership is more likely because the relationship between leader and follower is based on a more equal footing.
Leader Attributes: Leaders are unique individuals with different qualities and dispositions who bring their personality traits, motivations and ideas to leadership situations. All of these factors will influence the leadership process. Dierendonck, Ng, Koh, and Goh have done empirical research which suggests that people who have a desire to lead, with an aspiration to serve, are more likely to demonstrate servant leadership behaviours (Dierendonck, 2011, 1244). Other factors such as self-determination, moral cognitive development, cognitive complexity and emotional intelligence will positively contribute to servant leadership (Dierendonck, 2011, 1245).
Follower Receptivity: An employee’s desire for a servant leadership style is another influential antecedent condition. Research shows that some employees do not want to work with servant leaders. They regard servant leadership as micromanagement and report that they do not want leaders to be too familiar or be directly involved in promoting their personal and professional development (Liden, Wayne and others, 2008). Nevertheless, Meuser, Liden, Wayne and Henderson’s research shows that when servant leadership is matched with employees who are amenable to this type of leadership, it has a positive impact on performance and organizational behaviour. It seems that for some employees,
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servant leadership has a positive effect, and, for others, it could never be endorsed (Northouse, 2013, 226-227). The receptivity of followers plays a significant role in the effectiveness of servant leadership.
Servant Leader Behaviours
In their research, Liden, Panaccio, Hu, and Meuser have found the following seven leader behaviours are central to servant leadership: conceptualizing, emotional healing, putting followers first, helping followers grow and succeed, behaving ethically, empowering and creating value for the community. (As shown in the middle column of figure 1.1)
Conceptualizing: This term refers to the leader’s ability to understand the organization thoroughly - its mission, goals, and complexities. This capacity allows the leader to examine a problem from all angles and address the issue creatively in accordance with the primary goals of the organization (Northouse, 2013, 227).
Emotional Healing: Emotional healing refers to being sensitive to the psychological needs and well-being of others. This involves noticing others’
problems and difficulties, being willing to take time to address them, support them, and provide them with help and encouragement (Northouse, 2013, 229).
Putting Followers First: Service is the core of servant leadership, and its most important function is to place followers’ interests first. This means making followers’ concerns a priority, putting followers’ interests and success ahead of his/her own (Northouse, 2013, 228).
Helping Followers Grow and Succeed: This means recognizing followers’
potential and helping them become actualized; and facilitate their self-fulfilment. It includes making followers’ career development a priority and providing opportunities and supports for their ongoing development. It also involves being aware of followers’ professional or personal goals and helping to accomplish those aspirations (Northouse, 2013, 228).
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Behaving Ethically: This means holding to strong ethical principles and acting accordingly. Servant leaders do not compromise their ethical standards in order to achieve success, profits or short-term gains. Instead, they are honest, trustworthy, just, and good role models for ethical conduct. They take into account the common good and the environment in their decision-makings.
Empowering: Empowering refers to leaders who share power with followers by allowing them to assume control, they give them the freedom to be independent, to make their own decisions, and encourage self-sufficiency. Empowerment builds followers’ confidence in their own ability and creativity. It gives them the opportunity to develop their potential.
Creating Value for the Community: Servant leaders do not only focus on the development of their own organizations; but are also concerned for the larger community. They link the purposes of their organizations with the broader interests of the community. They consciously and intentionally support the larger community. Very often they are involved in local activities and encourage followers to take part in community services (Northouse, 2013, 229).
Outcomes
Besides the study of antecedent conditions and servant leadership behaviours, Liden and colleagues also examined the potential outcomes of servant leadership in their research. As can be seen in the right column of figure 1.1, the outcomes of servant leadership are: follower performance and growth, organizational performance, and societal impact (Northouse, 2013, 230).
Follower Performance and Growth: Most servant leadership behaviours emphasis putting followers’ interests, growth, and self-actualization first. As a result, it is possible for followers to realize their full capability, reach a greater human potential and have a sense of fulfilment. Research also suggested that when followers were open to this type of leadership, the outcomes were positive; they became more effective at doing their assigned work and accomplishing their jobs.
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Organizational Performance: Some scholars suggest that servant leadership has an influence on organizational performance. Several studies have found a positive relationship between servant leadership and organizational citizenship behaviour (Ehrhart, 2004; Liden and colleagues, 2008; Walumbwa and colleagues, 2010).
Furthermore, Hu and Liden have found that servant leadership enhances team effectiveness by increasing the members’ shared confidence that they could do better as a team; and servant leadership positively influence team potency by developing group process and clarity (Hu and Liden, 2011; Northouse, 2013, 231).
Societal Impact: In the servant leadership model, there is an underlying philosophical position, originally set forth by Greenleaf, that leaders should be altruistic and benevolent (Northouse, 2013, 233), which means putting followers first, listening to them, and helping them to grow. As a result, followers learn to serve one another; their organizations are healthier, and this ultimately benefits society. This culture of care extends to those in need, and has a positive impact on social change and human flourishing. For example, under the influence of Mother Teresa’s servant leadership, more than five thousand members who belong to the Missionaries of Charity, in one hundred and thirty-nine countries, are committed to serving the poor. This has made an extraordinary impact on society throughout the world.