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Several studies have examined the role of the teacher in promoting children’s autonomy within peer interactions (Izumi-Taylor, 2008; Lee, 2006; Majorano, Corsano, & Triffoni, 2015; Mashford-Scott & Church, 2011; Parry, 2014; Tzuo, 2007). Lee (2006) interviewed teachers in the United States about their beliefs around appropriate pedagogy. Lee (2006) interviewed 18 preschool teachers from six preschools about their teaching goals and quality practices for four year old children. Videos of actual classroom practices were evaluated by teachers as a means of eliciting their beliefs and it was this use of qualitative methods that ensured teachers could consider their beliefs in relation to the context in which they were enacted (Lee, 2006). In Lee’s study, providing choices so children could develop agency emerged as a strong theme in the teachers’ responses.

The majority of teachers (83%) expressed the belief that children need to be given freedom to choose and there was strong support for children learning through self-directed exploration with teachers saying they liked the way teachers were involved in children’s play without directing their learning (Lee, 2006). Lee (2006) identified the limitations of the survey method for gathering data on teachers’ beliefs, as it requires teachers to consider aspects of their practice in a decontextualised way. Although the sample size was small, the use of video to draw out teachers’ beliefs was an effective method for revealing teachers’ beliefs about curriculum experiences and the role of the teacher in promoting agency amongst children.

Izumi-Taylor (2008) investigated how teachers in a Japanese kindergarten promoted autonomy in play by drawing on the concept of ‘sunao’ or cooperation. Interviews with Japanese early childhood educators revealed teachers’ delegation of authority to children as part of classroom management. Teachers promoted children’s autonomy by encouraging them to share and discuss their points of view with their peers. Teachers also identified children modelling different skills for each other, and the appreciation of their peer’s different views and ideas as an important means of building ‘sunao’. The exchange of different viewpoints is an important part of peer learning as it promotes the idea of cognitive conflict (Piaget, 1977). Sharing different views can lead to children experimenting with new ideas and this often results in new understandings.

48 There has been some investigation of how teachers promote children’s agency in the resolution of their peer disputes (de Waal, 2000; Majorano, Corsano & Triffoni, 2015; Mashford-Scott & Church, 2011). Majorano et al. (2015) investigated teachers’ interventions in peer conflicts between pre-schoolers under the age of three years in Italian nurseries. The study involved 99 children and 10 nursery classes across seven nurseries in the north of Italy. Sixteen teachers participated in the study, with videotaped observations focused on educator-peer group interactions during free play, mealtimes and semi-structured activities. The study showed that in 80% of the conflicts, educators intervened directly and this disrupted children’s efforts to resolve conflict, therefore limiting opportunities for children to acquire social competence (Majorano et al., 2015). This finding was of concern to the researchers who stated that direct intervention could result in children becoming dependent on adult intervention, rather than using conflict as an opportunity for children to problem solve and deal with different perspectives. The study revealed the importance of teachers building social competence and resilience so that children can be tutors for other children, and motivate each other to learn together.

In another study, Mashford-Scott and Church (2011) explored how Australian early childhood teachers in two different settings promoted children’s agency in the resolution of peer disputes, including the importance of key teaching strategies and purposeful teacher involvement. Video- recorded observations of teachers over a two-week period focused on teachers’ language and behaviour when responding to disputes. In one instance of peer play, in which children were attempting to resolve a dispute over sharing marbles, various strategies were utilised. These included using physical gestures and props to support understanding, creating opportunities for children to discover possible solutions themselves; presenting each child’s suggestions as valid, and prompting children to respond to each other’s contributions or suggestions. In another episode of conflict, the teacher provided guidance to the child about how to communicate his perspective and how to create the opportunity to resume co-operative play (Mashford-Scott & Church, 2011).

Mashford-Scott and Church’s (2011) study provides evidence of the opportunities which exist for teachers to enable children to understand each other’s perspectives in peer disputes. Although the studies just described provide contrasting evidence about the nature of teachers’ involvement in peer disputes, both identify the importance of opportunities for children to

49 explore different perspectives shared by their peers (Majorano et al., 2015; Mashford-Scott & Church, 2011). The provision of such opportunities is of relevance to the present study, as it highlights the need for teachers to promote the types of peer interactions which enable children to exchange different viewpoints and potentially construct new understandings together.

Other studies have shown that children value their peers, viewing them as sources of knowledge (Briggs & Nichols, 2001; Haworth, et al., 2006; Howard, Jenvey & Hill, 2006; Williams, 2001). The Māori concept of tuakana-teina acknowledges that more experienced children have knowledge which they share with those less experienced. “The tuakana-teina relationship, an integral part of traditional Māori society, provides a model for buddy systems. An older or more expert tuakana (brother, sister or cousin) helps and guides a younger or less experienced teina (originally a younger sibling or cousin of the same gender)” (Pere, 1982, p. 74).

Haworth et al.’s (2006) collaborative action research project on a community of learners in a New Zealand kindergarten found evidence of a collective culture in which the tuakana scaffolded the teina’s learning. The Ministry of Education funded this three year research project in which experienced researchers worked alongside the kindergarten teachers with a focus on enhancing the community of learners operating within the kindergarten. Initially children were observed as they interacted with their friends. Working theories were then generated as to how best support children’s learning (Haworth et al., 2006). Teachers observed and recorded many incidents of older children working with younger children over several action research cycles. Twenty videotaped observations found examples of children providing active teaching of skills and knowledge. In one example, an older child modelled the actions of a song for a newer, younger child so he could join in at group time. Teachers expressed the belief that the tuakana- teina relationship provided opportunities for both children to develop cognitively; as the tuakana takes on a teaching role they affirm and express their knowledge and skills (Haworth et al., 2006). The need for teachers to actively promote peer learning was an important teaching strategy identified by the study (Haworth et al., 2006).

The studies reviewed in this section have identified the provision of agency in peer learning as an important factor. Research suggests teachers need to consciously provide opportunities for children to express and share different perspectives (Majorano et al., 2015; Mashford-Scott &

50 Church, 2011) and to role model skills and share knowledge (Haworth et al., 2006). The next section examines the research into specific teaching strategies for effective peer learning.