As illustrated in Table 8, in most of the instances seemingly is rendered by the verbal phrase jak się wydaje/zdaje ‘it seems’. The other frequent equiv- alents include the items suggested by the bilingual dictionaries, pozornie
and na pozór, which are non-inferential adverbials expressing one of the meanings of seemingly: “appearing to be something, especially when this is not true” (CALD). Its inferential equivalents include najwyraźniej, ewi- dentnie and wyraźnie.
Pozornie and na pozór/z pozoru are used to signal that something ap- pears to be true. Like seemingly, they are used in contexts which explicitly indicate that the claims they qualify are deceptive, as illustrated in (178) and (179).
(178) New approaches to these seemingly impossible questions will lead to unimaginable refinements in the world around us. Nowe podejście do tych pozornie nierozwiązywalnych proble- mów pozwoli wprowadzić nieprawdopodobne wręcz udosko- nalenia w otaczającym nas świecie. (Paralela, CORDIS|26387) (179) For this study, the team used polypropyleneimine dendrim-
ers as carriers for the genes and noted this specific dendrimer forms stable complexes with DNA that only seemingly break when inside tumour cells.
Na potrzeby badania zespół wykorzystał dendrymery PPI jako nośniki genów i zauważył, że właśnie ten dendrymer tworzy stabilne związki z DNA, które jedynie na pozór rozrywają się w środku komórek rakowych. (Paralela, CORDIS|30718) Wydaje się ‘it seems’ is employed as an equivalent of seemingly when the adverb communicates that there is some evidence supporting the speaker’s claim, but no reference to the evidence is given in the immediate context. Danielewiczowa (2002: 191-193) argues that wydaje się qualifies information which results from perception and reasoning. The exam- ples attested in the corpus indicate that seemingly communicates that the speaker’s claims are based on the facts and findings that the speaker is familiar with. Such uses are illustrated in examples (180) and (181).
(180) In plants, we show that the processes of extinction and specia- tion [the evolutionary process by which new species arise] are linked – seemingly the most vulnerable species are often the youngest.
W przypadku roślin wykazujemy, że procesy wymierania i spe- cjacji [ewolucyjny proces powstawania nowych gatunków] są powiązane – wydaje się, że najbardziej zagrożone gatunki są często najmłodsze. (Paralela, CORDIS|33450)
(181) With developments seemingly speeding up, there is an increas- ing relevance and need for mobile learning research focused on pedagogically meaningful approaches to mobile learning and systematically evaluated with appropriate data collection and analysis tools.
Wraz z postępami, które wydają się coraz szybsze wzrosły rola i zapotrzebowanie na badania nad mobilnym nauczaniem, ukierunkowane na istotne pod względem pedagogicznym po- dejścia do tej kwestii i systematycznie oceniane za pomocą od- powiedniego zbioru danych i narzędzi analitycznych. (Paralela, CORDIS|34209)
Najwyraźniej is employed as an equivalent of seemingly when it ex- presses retrospective inference, typically in those cases when the evidence for a claim or the source of the information given by the speaker is pro- vided in the context, as in (182) and (183).
(182) We are hearing about the harassment of journalists and the in- timidation of human rights activists, who are facing criminal charges. In addition, there were 200 arrests made in the wake of the recent protests in Baku in March and April. … The Azeri authorities have seemingly failed to understand that dialogue needs to be established between them and civil society, and not pressure being exerted by the authorities on society.
Słyszymy o szykanowaniu dziennikarzy i zastraszaniu dzia- łaczy na rzecz praw człowieka, którym stawiane są zarzu- ty karne. Ponadto w następstwie ostatnich protestów w Baku w marcu i kwietniu dokonano 200 aresztowań. … Władze azerskie najwyraźniej nie zrozumiały, że powinny nawiązać dialog ze społeczeństwem obywatelskim i że nie wolno im używać przemocy w stosunku do społeczeństwa. (Paralela, EP- Proc|ep-11-05-12-016-02)
(183) In these latest studies, the researchers from Duke University in North Carolina and Harvard University in Massachusetts found that while bonobos have seemingly never learnt to be selfish, chimps will do whatever it takes to get what they want – even if it means having to show a nasty side of themselves – as they get older.
W ramach ostatnich badań, naukowcy z Uniwersytetu Duke w Północnej Karolinie i Uniwersytetu Harvarda w Massachusetts odkryli, że podczas gdy bonobo najwyraźniej nigdy nie uczą się samolubności, to szympansy wraz z wiekiem zrobią wszyst- ko, aby dostać to co chcą, nawet jeżeli oznacza to pokazanie się od tej gorszej strony. (Paralela, CORDIS|31722)
In the parallel corpus, seemingly frequently occurs in texts report- ing scientific findings (e.g. CORDIS). It is not used to qualify inferences based on specific evidence, but it signals that a claim is rooted in empirical knowledge, and communicates that a case has been well documented. 5.4.8. Translation equivalents of apparently
The reportive equivalents of apparently are discussed in Chapter 4; this sec- tion focuses on its non-reportive counterparts. In its non-reportive uses, apparently functions as a subjunct: a downtoner, signalling that things are not necessarily what they appear to be; it is also used as a disjunct expressing retrospective inference and judgements based on unspecified evidence. When used as a subjunct, apparently is rendered as pozornie and na pozór. The two words have a similar etymology to apparently, as they are related to the noun pozór ‘appearance, in particular when misleading’ (Boryś 2006, translation mine: A.R.). In contrast to apparently, howev- er, they have not developed reportive or inferential uses. Like apparently, both items are used to contrast what seems to be true with what is actually true, as in (184) and (185).
(184) In the 1980s, researchers began to realise that these apparently disparate specimens were in fact parts of the same animal.
W latach 80. XX w. naukowcy zaczęli sobie zdawać sprawę, że te na pozór odmienne okazy, były w rzeczywistości częściami jednego zwierzęcia. (Paralela, CORDIS|30599)
(185) Its transition to democratic rule and better times for its people appeared a promising prospect after the 2008 legislative elec- tions were carried out in an apparently fair and peaceful man- ner.
Po pozornie uczciwych i pokojowych wyborach do parla- mentu przeprowadzonych w roku 2008, wydawało się, że ist- nieje obiecująca perspektywa przemiany w państwo demo- kratyczne i nadejścia lepszych czasów dla narodu. (Paralela, EPProc|ep-09-03-12-013-01)
When apparently expresses retrospective inference, it is rendered as najwyraźniej, widocznie, widać, and najwidoczniej, as illustrated in (186) and (187).
(186) Apparently somebody else must’ve had something against him ... because we’re not talking about a 9 mm here.
Najwyraźniej ktoś musiał mieć coś przeciwko niemu, bo nie mówimy o kalibrze 9mm. (Paralela, OpenSub|27291)
(187) The abelisaurids arms appear to be much weaker and sim- ply vestigial remnants. Their finding however has allowed re- searchers to make a clearer picture of how these arms evolved. The trend apparently set in early on, and began at the distal end, says Rauhut.
Ramiona abelizaurów wydają się znacznie słabsze i są po pro- stu pozostałością szczątkową. Odkrycie umożliwiło jednak na- ukowcom nakreślić wyraźniejszy obraz ewolucji ramion. Trend wykształcił się widocznie dosyć wcześnie i rozpoczął się od koń- ca odsiebnego – mówi dr Rauhut. (Paralela, CORDIS|34641) In those cases when the type of evidence is unspecified, apparently is rendered by the epistemic verbs wydaje się, zdaje się ‘it seems’/‘it appears’, which are also used as equivalents of seemingly. Another equivalent is the verbal phrase wygląda na to ‘it looks as though’, which is also used to sum-
marize situations on the basis of different types of evidence. The uses of the verbal phrases as equivalents of apparently are illustrated in examples (188) and (189).
(188) The EESC proposes that the year of intercultural dialogue should be used to ensure that differences, inequalities, contra- dictions and conflicts which are apparently due to economic, social, environmental and political causes should not only be seen in ethnic or cultural terms; rather, by becoming familiar with and accepting the diversity of our cultures and using inter- cultural dialogue as an instrument we should avoid conflicts by identifying the causes underpinning them.
EKES proponuje, by Europejski Rok Dialogu Międzykulturo- wego został wykorzystany do zapewnienia, że różnicom, nie- równościom, sprzecznościom czy konfliktom, które zdają się wynikać z przyczyn ekonomicznych, społecznych, środowi- skowych czy politycznych, nie będzie się nadawać wyłącznie charakteru etnicznego czy kulturowego, oraz do podjęcia sta- rań, by unikać konfliktów dzięki wykrywaniu ich powodów, jednocześnie uświadamiając sobie i w pełni akceptując różnice pomiędzy naszymi kulturami i korzystając z dialogu między- kulturowego jako odpowiedniego po temu narzędzia. (Paralela, JRC-Acquis|52006AE0590)
(189) I may be taking a minute more than I usually do, but for Mr Ai Weiwei, it will take ten years longer, apparently.
Być może będę przemawiał o minutę dłużej, niż to robię zazwy- czaj, ale wygląda na to, że Ai Weiwei będzie czekał dziesięć lat. (Paralela, EPProc|ep-11-04-07-010-01)
In sum, the analysis of the translation equivalents of apparently iden- tified in the parallel corpus confirms the semantic and functional simi- larity between apparently and seemingly, noted earlier in this study. Both adverbs tend to indicate that the speaker’s claim is based on evidence, but the existence of the evidence is often merely signalled. The speaker’s con- clusion does not result in a straightforward way from the analysis of avail- able evidence. The epistemic component is stronger in such judgements
than in the case of “inferences proper”. The type of inference apparently and seemingly express can thus be termed conjecture (cf. Thornes 2018). 5.5. Inferential adverbs in Polish
As delimited in this study, the category of inferential adverbs in Polish comprises the following items: wyraźnie, ewidentnie, jawnie, widocznie, najwyraźniej, najwidoczniej, and najoczywiściej (see also Table 6 in sec- tion 5.1). A characteristic feature of the category is its formal diversity. The group comprises positive degree forms: wyraźnie, ewidentnie, jawnie, and widocznie, as well as three forms which are morphologically superla- tive: najwyraźniej (<wyraźnie), najwidoczniej (<widocznie), and najoczy- wiściej (<oczywiście). The superlative forms have developed a range of uses which are independent from their basic forms. Najwidoczniej and najwyraźniej are classified as distinct inferential markers in Polish linguis- tics (e.g. Grochowski et al. 2014; WSJP). Najoczywiściej is a low frequency adverb; it is not usually included in Polish studies of evidential markers. I suggested it as a potential member of the category in my earlier studies (Rozumko 2012a, 2016c), and to make this study complete, I have includ- ed it here as well.
In current Polish grammar the inferential adverbs are classified into two groups: (1) inferential particles, comprising widocznie, najwyraźniej and najwidoczniej; (2) metapredicative operators of gradation: wyraźnie, ewidentnie and jawnie (e.g. WSJP; Grochowski et al. 2014). The division is largely based on their degrees of syntactic flexibility: particles are flexible with respect to their syntactic position, while metapredicative operators tend to be used with items possessing specific semantic properties. The greater flexibility of particles allows them to be used as sentence adverbs, while metapredicative operators tend not to be used in this function, and usually modify sentence elements and their constituents. As argued earlier in this work, the category of metapredicative operators rough- ly corresponds to the category of subjuncts as identified by Quirk et al. (1985). However, while in English most inferential adverbs functioning as subjuncts can also be used as disjuncts, in Polish the two functions are typically performed by separate sets of adverbs. While this strict division adopted in Polish linguistics suggests that the two categories are entirely
distinct and have well-defined boundaries, data from the National Corpus of Polish suggest that some of the items classified as metapredicative oper- ators (wyraźnie and ewidentnie) have uses which indicate that they could be classified as particles. Likewise, Danielewiczowa (2012: 171) argues that wyraźnie shows the syntactic properties of particles. In addition to their syntactic properties, the two sets differ with respect to the type of infer- ence they qualify. The metapredicative operators of gradation (wyraźnie, ewidentnie, jawnie) typically (though not always) qualify synchronous inference, while the inferential particles (widocznie, najwyraźniej, najwi- doczniej, najoczywiściej) usually express retrospective inference. In the sections which follow, the inferential adverbs are divided into two sets, as outlined above, and discussed accordingly.