As discussed in Chapter 1: Introduction, enterprise gamification is a new and emerging field and is still without any robust theories or frameworks. However one of the key defining features of enterprise gamification is that it presents itself in part as a technological innovation through the use of gamified enterprise technologies and platforms, and the use of digital games and simulations that combine front-end and back-end functionalities.
As a technological innovation, gamification therefore has significant IS implications for an organisation, particularly in the areas of Management Support Systems, Enterprise Resource Planning and Customer Relationship Management – as can be seen the example of Nike in Chapter 2, whose gamification strategy encompassed all three of these IS applications. Gamification has received attention from researchers in the IS domain and has opened an area of new research opportunities over the last few years (Broer & Poppelbuss 2013; Herzig et al. 2013; Mekler et al. 2013; Varajao et al. 2014; Liu and Santhanam 2015; Fernandes et al. 2012).
This provides an opportunity to utilize established IS frameworks and models that may help to inform ongoing research and development of enterprise gamification. Therefore the theoretical foundations of this research is based on design-science in information systems (Hevner et al. 2004) and has been used to inform the design of this methodology.
Design Science in IS Research
Hevner et al. (2004) in their seminal work on design-science in information systems research, provide a concise conceptual framework and guidelines for understanding, executing and evaluating research in the IS domain. The
design-science paradigm focuses on problem-solving in human, technology and organisation systems, and provides pertinent and rigorous term of reference for research in enterprise gamification. The key features of design- science in information systems bares similarities with the purpose and focus of gamification in the enterprise, and therefore provides an appropriate theoretical foundation for my field of enquiry. A selection of features in design-science in information systems that overlap with enterprise gamification are as follows:
• An information system is implemented in an organisation for the purpose of improving the effectiveness and efficiency of that organisation;
• Improving organisational effectiveness and efficiency is also a product of the capabilities of the IS, characteristics of the organisation, its works systems, its people, and its development and implementation methodologies (Silver et al. in Hevner et al. 2004); • Aim of researchers in design-science is to further knowledge that
aids in the productive application of information technology to human organisations and their management (ISR 2002, in Hevner et al. 2004);
• Behavioral science is a critical component of design-science (often referred to as the opposite side of the same coin) as it informs researchers and practitioners of the interactions between people, technology and organisations that must be managed if an information system is to achieve its stated purpose;
• Design-science is essentially a problem solving paradigm and it seeks to create innovations that define the ideas, practices, technical capabilities and products used in organisational information systems (Denning 1997; Tsichritzis, in Hevner et al. 2004);
• Theories, methods and systems that are developed using a design- science approach need to take into account functional capabilities, information content and human interfaces;
• Artefacts need to be developed as part of the design-science approach. Artefacts need to extend the boundaries of human problem solving and organisational capabilities by providing intellectual as well as computational tools to problem solving;
• Artefacts that are developed as a product of design-science are broadly defined as falling in four key areas:
o Constructs: which are vocabularies and symbols o Models: which are abstractions and representations o Methods: which are practices or algorithms
o Instantations: which are implemented or prototyped systems. In design-science, design is integral to the process of linking all these elements together to accomplish a business goal. Design is both a process (a set of activities) and a product (artefact) and this is consistent with the problem-solving paradigm of the pragmatist approach that is at the core of design-science (Hevner et al. 2004 p.78).
Hevner (2004) states that information systems, and the organisations that they support, are complex, artificial and purposefully designed. They are comprised of people, structures, technologies and work systems - which are the same conditions and constraints under which enterprise gamification operates.
There are four key philosophical aspects of Hevner’s perspective of design- science approach that have also informed my approach to investigating enterprise gamification during my research and on reflecting on the final research outcomes:
• The goal of behavioural science is truth, and the goal of design science is utility;
• Truth and utility are inseparable;
• Truth informs design, and utility informs theory;
• An artefact has some utility, and an element of some yet undiscovered truth.
Throughout my research my aim has been to ascertain truth and create utility in the design-science tradition as a means to (a) address the research problems and research objectives at the centre of this dissertation, and to (b) provide a research contribution.
Applying Design Science to ‘Wicked Problems’
Design-science research addresses unsolved problems in unique or innovative ways (Hevner et al. 2004 p.81), and encourages researchers to take different or unique approaches to design. The design-science approach works best when requisite knowledge in a field is non-existent, there is a reliance on creativity to find the truth, and that there is an element of trial- and-error that is required in the research effort in tackling a ‘wicked problem’ (Hevner et al. 2004 p.81). These ‘wicked problems’ as described by Hevner, are characterized by the following elements in the list below. Beneath each item, I have indicated to what degree these elements apply in the enterprise gamification domain and to my research:
1. Unstable requirements and constraints based upon ill-defined environmental contexts.
Environmental contexts in enterprise gamification are still fluid, ill- defined and lack overall classification and definitions given the early stage of research;
2. Complex interactions among sub-components of the problem and its solution.
There are many complex sub components of enterprise gamification problems and solutions that stem from design, technological, psychological, behavioural, and systems based domains;
3. Inherent inflexibility to change design processes as well as design artefacts.
While there is some flexibility within the gamified artefacts that can be developed, there is however inherent inflexibility within the enterprise systems with which gamification needs to integrate;
4. A critical dependence on human cognitive abilities (e.g. creativity) to produce effective solutions.
This is a prime characteristic of enterprise gamification, as it is dependent on human creativity, analysis and design to create effective, human-centred gamification solutions;
5. A critical dependence upon human social abilities (e.g. teamwork) to produce effective solutions.
This is also a prime characteristic of enterprise gamification design as it requires cross functional & multi-disciplinary teams to produce effective solutions.
Using the theoretical perspective provided by Hevner et al. (2004) enterprise gamification research can be characterised as a ‘wicked problem’. The elements of unstable requirements and constraints, complex interactions, and critical dependence on human cognitive and social abilities are particularly pertinent in gamification research.