ZONA DEL ALTO ARAGON

Witch and founder of the modern religion of WITCHCRAFT, more commonly called Wicca to differentiate it from folk

MAGIC and SORCERY.

Gerald B. Gardner was born into a well-to-do family in Blundellsands, near Liverpool, England, on Friday, June 13, 1884. His father was a merchant and a justice of the peace, a member of a family that had made money in the timber trade. Gardner claimed that an ancestor, Grissell Gairdner, was burned as a witch in 1610 in Newburgh and that other members of the family had possessed psychic gifts.

The middle of three sons, Gardner was raised primar-ily by the famprimar-ily’s nurse and governess, Josephine “Com”

McCombie. He lived and worked in Ceylon, Borneo, and Malaysia, where he became fascinated by Eastern r it ual daggers and weapons and magical beliefs and practices.

From 1923 to 1936 Gardner worked as a civil servant for the British government as a rubber-plantation inspector, a customs offi cial, and an inspector of opium establish-ments. He made a considerable sum of money in rubber.

In 1927 he married an Englishwoman, Donna. The two returned to England on his retirement from government work in 1936.

They lived in the New Forest region where Gardner became involved with the Fellowship of Crotona, an occult group of Co-Masons, a Masonic order established by Mrs.

Besant Scott, daughter of Theosophist Annie Besant. The group had established “The First Rosicrucian Theater in England,” which put on plays with occult themes. Within

the Fellowship of Crotona was another, secret group, which drew Gardner into its confi dence. The members claimed to be hereditary Witches, who practiced a craft passed down to them through the centuries, unbroken by the witch hunts of the Middle Ages and Renaissance.

The group met in the New Forest. Gardner was initiated into the coven in the home of old Dorothy Clutterbuck in 1939.

Gardner became intensely interested in magic and witchcraft and invested much time in extending his net-work of contacts in occultism. He collected material on magical procedures, especially ceremonial magic, which he put together in an unpublished manuscripted entitled Ye Bok of ye Art Magical.

In 1946 Gardner met Cecil Williamson, an occultist and owner of a museum of witchcraft. He later acquired the museum from Williamson and operated it in different locations.

In 1947 Gardner was introduced to al eist er cr owl ey by one of Gardner’s own initiates, Arnold Crowther. Crow-ley made Gardner an honorary member of the or do t em-pl i or ient is (OTO), a Tantric sex magic order at one time under Crowley’s leadership in Britain, and granted Gard-ner a charter to operate an OTO lodge.

Gardner was especially interested in gleaning whatever he could from Crowley, who by then was in poor health and only months away from death. Gardner obtained mag-ical material from Crowley. From this and other sources, he compiled his book of shadows, a collection of rituals and Craft laws. Gardner claimed to have received a

frag-s G s

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mentary Book of Shadows from his New Forest coven. At the time witchcraft was against the law in England, and he disguised his Book of Shadows in a novel, High Magic’s Aid, published in 1949 under the pseudonym Scire. When the law was repealed in 1951, Gardner left the New Forest coven and established his own group.

In 1953 Gardner initiated Doreen Valiente, who sub-stantially reworked his book of shadows, taking out most of the Crowley material because his “name stank” and giv-ing more emphasis to the Goddess. From 1954 to 1957 Gardner and Valiente collaborated on writing ritual and nonritual material, a body of work which became the authority for what became known in Wicca as the Gard-nerian tradition. Valiente and others in the coven departed in 1957 over disapproval of the media attention that Gard-ner received, much of which was negative. Valiente per-suaded Gardner to destroy his papers.

Gardner engaged in magical warfare; in 1956 he enlisted the help of aust in osman spare against kennet h grant .

Gardner was a voyeur and naturalist and required coven meetings and magical work to be done in the nude, or “sky-clad.” He claimed that this was an old tradition; whether or not it was, it suited his interests. He advocated raising magi-cal power through an “eightfold path” that includes danc-ing; chants, spel l s, and invocat ions; trance and ast r al project ion; incense, wine, and drugs; meditation and con-centration; use of cords for bl ood control and knot magic;

scourging; and sex, as performed in the Great Rite, a cere-mony conducted by a coven high priestess and high priest.

In 1963 Gardner set sail for Lebanon. He died aboard ship on his return home on February 12, 1964, suffering heart failure at breakfast. He was buried ashore in Tunis on February 13.

Gardner’s nonfi ction book on the craft, Witchcraft Today (1954), and The Meaning of Witchcraft (1959) remain in print and are considered authoritative works on Wicca, though few Wiccans today believe his assertion that a religion of Witchcraft has existed unbroken since ancient times. This claim, put forward in the 1930s by anthropolo-gist Margaret A. Murray, has been debunked by scholars.

After his death much of the contents of his museum were sold to the Ripley organization, which dispersed the objects to its various museums. Some of the items have since been resold to private collections.

Furt her Reading:

Gardner, Gerald B. Witchcraft Today. London: Rider & Co., 1954, 1956.

———. The Meaning of Witchcraft. 1959. Reprint, New York:

Magickal Childe, 1982.

Guiley, Rosemary Ellen. The Encyclopedia of Witches and Witchcraft. 2d ed. New York: Facts On File Inc., 1999.

King, Francis. Megatherion: The Magickal World of Aleister Crowley. New York: Creation Books, 2004.

Geber See IBNHAYYAR, JABIR.

gematria One of three kabbalistic systems for discover-ing the secret and mystical truths of words and the NAMES

of God and ANGELS and for interpreting biblical words and passages, all by analyzing their numerical values. Each let-ter of the Hebrew alphabet has a numerical value and a certain spiritual, creative power; God creates everything in the universe by uttering certain words. The values of words and names are totaled and then equated with other words and names that have the same numerical values, and then analyzed within the context of Scripture and other factors.

Gematria was developed into a sophisticated system by German kabbalists during the 13th century but was known and used much earlier by other cultures. King Sargon II, who ruled Babylonia in the eighth century b.c.e., used the numerical value of his name to determine that the wall of Khorsabad should be built to the same equivalent, or 16,283 cubits. The ancient Greeks, Persians, Gnostics, and early Christians used gematria for a variety of purposes.

The Greeks applied it to dream interpretation, and the Gnostics to the names of deities. Early Christians arrived at the dove for the symbol of Christ because the Greek let-ters of alpha and omega (the Beginning and the End) and the Greek term for dove (peristera) add up to the same number, 801.

The kabbalistic system of gematria derived from Near Eastern Gnostic and Helenistic cultures. It is more com-plex than merely tallying up numerical values of letters; it involves various methods of analysis by which the mystical purposes of the Scriptures, buildings, and objects may be determined. Not only are the numerical values considered but also the size and strokes of the letters. The kabbal-ists of the 13th century, most notably Eleazar of Worms, applied gematria to the Scriptures, which were held to have been inspired by God and written in code. Thus, “And lo, three men” from Genesis 18:2 is interpreted as referring to the archangels Michael, Gabriel and Raphael, for “And lo, three men” and “Elo Michael Gabriel Ve-Raphael” each have the same numerical value of 701.

Gematria was used to ascertain the secret, ineffable, and indescribably powerful names of God. These names were incorporated into the incantations of ceremonial magic, which were used for conjuring and controlling demons.

Some names of angels also are secret names of God, such as Azbogah.

Different systems of gematria were developed; the Kabbalist Moses Cordovero said there were nine. Gema-tria spread into alchemical and esoteric Christian works.

Hebrew words—with or without gematria—took on greater importance for their mystical power or hidden meanings and connections.

Lesser known than gematria are notarikon and temu-rah, two other systems of decoding and analyzing mys-tical truths. Various methods exist in both systems. In notarikon, the fi rst letter of words may be extracted and combined to form new words, or the fi rst, the last, and sometime the middle letters of words are combined to cre-112 Geber

ate new words or phrases. Names of God and angels are revealed in this fashion. In temurah, letters are organized in tables or mathematical arrangements, which are then substituted for the letters in words, or letters are rear-ranged into anagrams. For example, such tables can be used to discover the names of the good and evil angels of the planets and signs of the zodiac.

genii In Roman mythology, guardian spirits of people, places or things. A genius presides over the birth of a person, a place, or a thing and shapes its character and destiny. Like a guardian ANGEL, it remains with a person throughout life and becomes the person’s living soul after death. The genius of a place is the living spirit that ani-mates a locale and gives it its unique powers and atmo-sphere.

Genii can be evoked and commanded in ceremonial magic.

See also DAMIONES.

geomancy A method of DIVINATION involving the Earth.

Geomancy also is called the art of little dots, but it is not to be confused with cartomancy. Geomancy comes from the Greek words ge, “earth,” and manteia, “PROPHECY.”

Geomancy may have originated in northern Africa under Muslim infl uences and by the Middle Ages had spread to Europe. It was a popular alternative to ast r ol -ogy because it requires no special equipment or books.

A handful of dirt, sand, seeds, or pebbles is cast on the ground or on a smooth tabletop or a sheet of paper.

The resulting fi gures and dots are interpreted. Other methods of geomancy are the making of random marks on the earth with a stick or on a piece of paper with a pencil or a pen. The tossing of coins or sticks also are forms of geomancy (see I CHING). Regardless of form, geomancy involves the interpretation of 16 fi gures, called tetragrams.

Geomancy was one of the main divinatory arts taught by the her met ic or der of t he gol den dawn. The chief method taught was the generation of random dots on paper with a pen. Sixteen tetragrams are possible. Each tetragram is a four-part fi gure comprised of four lines, each of which is comprised by one or two dots. The geo-mancer generates 16 random numbers; odd numbers have one dot and even numbers have two dots. The 16 numbers become the Four Mothers, from which other tetragrams are created, until there are a total of 16. The tetragrams are used for yes/no answers. More informa-tion can be divined with astrological associainforma-tions by placing the fi rst 12 tetragrams on a square chart of zodiac signs.

In Golden Dawn magic, geomancy tetragrams can be used for scrying and to create sigil s for tal ismans.

See also augury.

FURTHER READING:

C^ICERO, C^HIC, ^AND S^ANDRA T^ABATHA C^ICERO. The Essential Golden Dawn. St. Paul, Minn.: Llewellyn Publications, 2004.

glamour A type of BEWITCHMENT in which things or people are made to seem better than they are. In Celtic magical lore, a SPELL for glamour is called glamourie, or sian in Gaelic. Glamour spells are cast by FAIRIES, WITCHES,

SORCERERS, and deities.

A glamour spell creates illusions: Rags look like elegant clothing, ugly people look handsome, hovels look like castles, and worthless objects look like treasures. Animals look like beautiful people. Glamour spells end suddenly.

For example, in the fairy tale about Cinderella, a glamour spell makes her appear elegantly dressed, and a pump-kin pulled by mice appears to be a fi ne carriage drawn by horses. The spell ends at midnight on the night of a ball.

Glastonbury Ancient, sacred site in England’s West Country, identifi ed with the GRAIL and the mythical Ava-lon of Arthurian legends. For centuries, Glastonbury has drawn spiritual pilgrims, including many practitioners of

MAGIC.

Glastonbury is located on the plains of Somerset Levels, not far from the Bristol Channel. It comprises an abbey, a town, and Glastonbury Tor, a terraced volcanic rock with the remains of an old church tower at its apex. The area around the town was once almost an island surrounded by marshlands—it was not dry until the 16th century—and is thought to have been inhabited by humans since Meso-lithic times. There is evidence that it may have been a sacred site of the Druids. The ruins of lake villages found at Glastonbury and neighboring Meare most likely date from the third or fourth century b.c.e. and are believed to have been deserted shortly before the Roman occupation. North Somerset was a Roman settlement, and excavations have uncovered pottery and coins in and around the Glaston-bury area, near the abbey, at Chalice Well, and on the Tor.

The Tor

From the 500-foot summit of Glastonbury Tor, one can see 50 to 60 miles in all directions. The terraced slopes (three of which are steep) suggest the Tor once was farmed.

Another theory holds that the terraces are the remnants of a three-dimensional maze dating to the fi rst Christian settlements and serving as a path for pilgrims.

At one time, there was a stone circle atop the Tor. In the Middle Ages, monks built St. Michael’s there; it was later destroyed during an earthquake. The remains stand-ing today are those of a later church built on the site. A six-day fair dedicated to the saint was held at the foot of the Tor each year from 1127 to 1825.

According to legend, the summit of the Tor is said to have been the location of a stronghold belonging to King Arthur and also purported to be the entrance to Annwn, Glastonbury 113

the secret, underworld kingdom of Gwyn ap Nudd, king of the f air ies. The sixth century Saint Collen is said to have visited Gwyn by entering through a hidden entrance.

Finding himself inside a palace, Saint Collen sprinkled holy water around, and the palace vanished, leaving the saint standing alone on the top of the Tor.

114 Glastonbury

Geomantic fi gures, in The Magus, by Francis Barrett, 1801. (Author’s collection)

The Tor also is the site of strange lights that hover about it, perhaps the effects of a mysterious magnetic earth energy or, as some UFO watchers believe, connected to extraterrestrial spacecraft.

Modern practitioners of magic, Paganism, Wicca, and other spiritual traditions hold rites and r it ual s on the Tor.

The Abbey

Legend has it that Joseph of Arimathea, the rich man who wrapped the body of Jesus and carried it to his tomb, later came to Glastonbury and built England’s fi rst Christian church, “the Old Church,” below the Tor. Legend also has it that St. Patrick lived among the monks there and was buried there.

King Ine is believed to have founded a monastery on the site circa 705, which became a Benedictine house in the 10th century. The abbey’s 12th century Lady Chapel replaced a former church on the site that was destroyed by fi re in 1184, which itself had replaced the “Old Church.”

The standing remains are said to be from the structure built in the 13th or 14th century and destroyed in the 16th century during the reign of King Henry VIII. In the abbey ruins blooms the Glastonbury Thorn at Easter and Christmas. According to tradition, Joseph arrived by boat on Wearyall Hill and while leaning on his staff in prayer, the staff took root and the Thorn was seeded.

The abbey grounds also are the alleged burial sites of King Arthur and Queen Guinevere—one of many men-tioned in legend. Arthur’s sword, excal ibur , which in leg-end was tossed into a lake by Sir Bedivere on the dying king’s instructions, may have been thrown into the now drained mere at Pomparles Bridge near Glastonbury. A Welsh bard is said to have revealed the secret burial site to King Henry II. The abbey was destroyed by fi re in 1184; during rebuilding, monks searched for the remains of Arthur and Guinevere. In 1190, they claimed to fi nd them in a hollow log coffi n nine feet below a stone slab.

The man measured eight feet in height and had a damaged skull; a bit of blonde hair was found with the woman’s remains. A lead cross was inscribed, “here lies buried the renowned King Arthur in the Isle of Avalon.” The bones were reinterred in 1278 in a black marble tomb. Though investigations in the 20th century confi rmed discovery of the graves, it has been impossible to identify them conclu-sively as those of Arthur and his queen.

Chalice Well

At the foot of the Tor stands Chalice Well, believed to be the hiding place where Joseph of Arimethea threw the chalice that had been used by Jesus at the Last Supper. The Holy Grail reportedly had magical powers, and it fi gures in the popular legend of the Knights of the Round Table fail-ing to recover it after its disappearance.

According to legend, the Chalice Well was built of large blocks of stone by the dr uids. Also referred to as Blood Spring, some 25,000 gallons of reddish ir on oxide spring

water, said to have magical properties, fl ow through the well each day.

The Bond Excavations

In 1907, the Church of England took over the ruins of Glastonbury and began excavations under the direction of Frederick Bligh Bond. Bond located unknown chapels and parts of the abbey and concluded that the abbey had been constructed according to an ancient, sacred geometry known to the builders of the Egyptian pyramids and the Masons. He attributed his brilliant success to automatic writing, in which mediums communicated with the spirits of monks and received directions from them. A scandal ensued, and Bond was fi red. Decades later, his fi ndings were reinvestigated and appreciated in a new light.

Bond had intuited a connection between Glastonbury and Stonehenge and Avebury, which has been borne out. A l ey is said to pass through the Tor linking it to Stonehenge.

The ley runs along an old road called Dod Lane (from the German word for dead, tod), or “Dead Man’s Lane.” In

The ley runs along an old road called Dod Lane (from the German word for dead, tod), or “Dead Man’s Lane.” In