A Decolonial Perspective of the Native and Non-native Dichotomy in English Textbooks
Aura María Estacio Barrios
20151062009
Universidad Distrital Francisco José de Caldas
School of Sciences and Education
Masters in Applied Linguistics to TEFL
Bogotá, Colombia.
A Decolonial Perspective of the Native and Non-native Dichotomy in English Textbooks
Aura María Estacio Barrios
Thesis Director: Álvaro Quintero Polo (PhD)
“A thesis submitted as a requirement to obtaining the degree of M. A. in Applied Linguistics to the Teaching of English”
Universidad Distrital Francisco José de Caldas
School of Science and Education
M.A. in Applied Linguistics
Bogotá-Colombia
Note of acceptance
Thesis Director ___________________________________
Name: Álvaro Quintero Polo (PhD)
Jury 1: ____________________________________________
Name
Jury 2:____________________________________________
Abstract
This qualitative research study aims to analyze the contents included in two English
textbooks used by two Colombian universities in regards to the native and non-native speaker and the way they are portrayed in discursive terms, in the listening exercises proposed by the
textbooks. Besides, it explains the tensions implicit in the native and non-native dichotomy, and the implications that the supremacy given to the use of the native speaker myth could
bring when it is immerse in ELT materials. Consequently, the findings of this study are taken from a method of Critical Discourse Analysis in which the English textbooks and other kinds of texts such as theoretical references and the media dialogued to show the ideological
implications of this phenomenon and its influence on the way in which native and non-native speakers shape their attitudes towards the language and its learning process.
Table of Contents
Abstract………4
Chapter I: Problem Statement………..9
Introduction………..9
Research Question………18
Research Objectives……….18
Justification………...18
Chapter II: Literature Review………...20
Native and Non-native Dichotomy………...21
Coloniality in ELT………23
English Teaching Models: Top-Down vs. Bottom-Up……….27
Chapter III: Research Design………33
Type of Study………33
The Social Actors Involved………...35
Text and Context………...35
What Constitutes Data in this Study……….37
Chapter IV: Data Analysis and Findings………..42
Framework of Analysis……….42
Native Speaker as the Dominant Model to Be Followed……….50
Idealized Language Performance………..51
Idealized Cultural Background and Social Context………..57
Idealized Teaching and Learning Model………..60
Non-native Speakers are not Efficient Language Producers………63
Deficient Language Performance and Attitudes………..64
Chapter V: Conclusions and Implications………70
Questions for Further Research………73
References……….75
Table of Figures Figure 1: Microcurriculum- Basic English Skills- ECCI University……….14
Figure 2: Microcurriculum- Basic English Skills- ECCI University. Competences………….15
Figure 3: Curriculum Syllabus VS. English Result Textbook Syllabus………15
Figure 4: Institutional Objective. Languages Center. Universidad Pedagógica Nacional….16 Figure 5: UPN Curriculum Syllabus VS. Speakout Contents………...17
Figure 6: Theoretical Discussion………..20
Figure 7: NS and NNS Interventions in the Textbooks………..38
Figure 8: Intertextual Analysis………..41
Figure 9: Prosodic Aspects Sample………..44
Figure 10: Topics Identification………45
Figure 12: Intertextual Analysis Sample……….46
Figure 13: Common Patterns & Topic Coding……….48
Figure 14: Definition of categories grouping……….48
Figure 15: First Category Graphic……….50
Figure 16: Speech Speed………..51
Figure 17: Pronunciation Distinctions………..53
Figure 18: You Tube Channels………55
Figure 19: British Vocabulary Preference………56
Figure 20: Cultural Background Sample………..58
Figure 21: Reading- Cultural Background………..59
Figure 22: Language Teaching Model……….61
Figure 23: Foreign Students Interview………...63
Figure 24: Second Category Graphic………64
Figure 25: Lack of confidence sample………..65
Figure 26: Lack of confidence- English Club……….66
Figure 27: Language Misunderstanding Activity………67
Figure 28: The Simpsons Intertextual Analysis………..69
Appendix 2: Intertextual Analysis Chart………87
Appendix 3: Open Coding………..…89
Appendix 4: Intertextual Analysis………...91
Appendix 5: Categories and Codes Distribution – Color and Number Division……….93
Chapter I
Problem Statement
Introduction
Over time, native and non-native speakers’ conflicts in regards to the ownership of the English language have had an impact on teaching and learning language practices around the
world (Bhowmik, 2015). This fact leads to the existence of a native and non-native
dichotomy in educational contexts. Thus, the analysis of this trend allows evidencing how the
native and non-native like models of education affect the attitudes of all the actors that are involved in English education (students, teachers, institutions, publishing houses,
governments) towards the language.
Thereby, this research study intended to analyze the implicit tensions in the native and non-native dichotomy as well as the implications that the supremacy given to the use of the
native speaker myth (Phillipson, 1992) could bring, when it is immersed in ELT materials such as textbooks. Hence, this study allowed the researcher to portray the ideological
implications of this phenomenon and its influence on the way native and non-native speakers
have an impact on the English language teaching field. That is why terms such as dichotomy, colonialism, native and non-native models of education are going to be addressed during this
chapter.
To address the ways in which this dichotomy has been present in the Colombian
contexts, it is necessary to underline that Colombian education has emphasized on the need to improve English language teaching. This, in order to accomplish the requirements of
globalization, which demands English speakers that can belong to the social dynamics of
From this perspective, there is a need of speaking English in order to be understood in specific contexts (Kachru & Smith, 2008). It is at this point, that the imposed belief that there
must exist a standardized language arises and it allows its native and non-native speakers to communicate ideally to avoid language misunderstandings (Crystal, 2003).
As a consequence of the previous issue, non-native English speakers face struggles
towards the ownership of the language. English allows non-native speakers to gain access to a globalized world of communication and break boundaries of language and culture.
Nonetheless, this access seems to be tied to certain impositions on non-native speakers if they
are to be considered English speakers. Then, “they are forced to hide their intellectual and communicative capabilities under a bushel, while native speakers can be quite carefree about how they exploit and display their home field advantage” (Kohn, 2011: 71).
In other words, as English is seen as a key to succeed, non-native speakers face
inequality in regards to the ownership of the language. Native speakers have control of the language because of the prestige that involves belonging to the inner circle as it is described by Kachru (1985). In this sense, having English as the primary language of interaction means
to have power over the language and to be in a better position than outer and expanding circles English speakers.
Thence, to document how this phenomenon is perpetrated by native- speaking countries and how it is materialized through different institutions and organizations that deal with education management processes, the term colonialism becomes a key term. That is why
it is necessary to know what colonialism is for the sake of understanding how this trend of thought has influenced the perceptions of language use. The term colonialism is referred to
to achieve a corporal and mental dominance of populations that dwelled the American territory in colonial times (Quijano, 1992). In language teaching terms, colonialism is taken
as the lengthening of domination mechanisms and power structures that have remained within the linguistic field and which have shaped the way of thinking of their speakers (Ramanathan, 2013).
Bearing in mind that Western domination has been addressed as one of the key aspects to analyze how the native- speaking models have become the model to follow when referring to English teaching, it is necessary to emphasize on the domination practices depicted on
teaching materials such as textbooks and the ideological implications that it brings to the foreign language field.
As a matter of fact, different authors have stated the ideological implications that textbooks tend to introduce in its users. Such is the case of Navarro (1993) who asserted that
textbooks portray rules, cultural values and realities of specific agents of society. This constitutes a tool to shape the users’ minds. In this sense, rules and cultural values portrayed
in textbooks seem to be the model to follow and the goal to be achieved.
Based on the previously stated theoretical support, the current research project needs to be situated in a real context of language education. Thus, the study of that phenomenon in
this research emerged based on the documentary analysis of the mission and the vision proposed by two Colombian universities that state as principal aim the education of
multilingual and multicultural students that could face the internationalization processes the
economy is going through nowadays.
Based on that analysis, which will be explained in detail later on, it was possible to
the mission and the vision, show a mismatch between the institutional documents and the syllabus and materials used in the English classes. This is so due to the fact that both
institutions are proposing the idea of multilingualism and cultural diversity as a principal goal, but the textbooks that are being used in the classroom aim to follow a standardized language variation.
It is at this point where the native and non-native dichotomy is evident. The native variation is a model to follow in English teaching and the non-native is referred as the one to
be rejected. Hence, the existence of this dichotomy could lead to the perpetuation of a colonial discourse that needs to be studied in the field of language learning education. The research problem already mentioned needs to be examined from a more detailed perspective in order to
give the proper backup to the social phenomenon that this project is attempting to analyze.
Based on the information previously stated, the main concern of this research is the existence of a dominant discourse exerted by two Colombian institutions in which the British
and North American language variations are seen as the correct way of speaking. This fact is portrayed when the institutions choose British and American textbooks, and more specifically
their pronunciation (which is materialized in the listening exercises) as the basis of the
language teaching. Such choice disregards the ideologies and implications that are included in the contents of the textbooks and ignore the fact that the information provided creates an
imposition of a vision of the world through subtle discursive strategies.
That is why the core analysis of this study was focused on the identification of the
phenomenon of native and non-native dichotomy in the listening exercises provided by the textbooks English Result and Speakout and its social implications. To do that, it was
are adequate for the Colombian context and the kind of ideologies the textbooks transmit to its users.
Accordingly, the phenomenon of native and non-native dichotomy was located in the
Colombian educational context. It was taken into account that the analysis of this phenomenon has implications in the way English is taught in Colombian educational
institutions.
As it was previously mentioned, this research project was conducted based on an analysis of the educational context and materials used by two Colombian institutions:
Universidad ECCI and Universidad Pedagógica Nacional. The former is a private university and the latter is a public one. What this might mean is that this phenomenon occurs in all kind
of institutions in our country.
Universidad ECCI has a teaching program in Modern Languages. This institution has as main objective to train multilingual professionals who are able to face the socio-economic
changes required in the international demands nowadays. As a matter of fact, an evident objective in the syllabus of the institution aims to create environments in which students are
able to deal with globalization and communication with individuals around the world. This might mean that language diversity is part of the dynamics of the classroom and students have the opportunity to recognize different English variations they might encounter in their
professional development. Figure 1 represents an excerpt taken from the syllabus presents what was already stated:
Figure 1
Notwithstanding, an analysis of the English curriculum proposed by this university, made it evident an educational mismatch. Firstly, not only the mission and the vision of the
program but also the subject Basic English Skills of first semester, state in its justification that one of the rationales of the subject is to be part of the globalization dynamics based on the
fact that English has become an international language (Shohamy, 2006). This is the reason why students are going to have access to English in order to develop linguistic and
communicative competences to interact with people around the world.
Secondly, it is evident in figure 2, that the interpersonal competences proposed by the curriculum of the institution focus on the value and respect for the diversity and the
multiculturality around the world. Besides that, it emphasizes on the willingness to develop competences so that future professionals work in international contexts. Those competences are designed to accomplish the professional demands that a student of Modern Languages will
Microcurriculum- Basic English Skills- ECCI University. Competences
Although the institution provides a curriculum which seems to meet the demands of multiculturality and diversity in the global world, it does not have a relationship with the educational material that they are providing to the teachers and students.
Figure 3
Curriculum Syllabus VS. English Result Textbook Syllabus
As it is evident in figure 4, the institution proposes a syllabus completely based on a British textbook called English Result by Oxford publishing house. This textbook is a series
the documents of the institution. This constitutes an educational mismatch and supports the problem that was addressed in this project.
Universidad Pedagógica Nacional is a public university that counts with a Languages Center. This center is in charge of offering languages courses to children and adults. The institutional objectives, as well as in the case of Universidad ECCI, state the need to make
students part of the globalization processes around the world and to gain equality of conditions in terms of language proficiency when they interact in international contexts. Figure 4
Institutional Objective. Languages Center. Universidad Pedagógica Nacional
On that account, to accomplish the objective previously stated, the university proposes a syllabus based completely on the contents of a textbook called Speakout, developed by
Pearson Editor House. This textbook is a series of 6 levels of proficiency course books, developed by Steve Oakes (2015). The contrast between the syllabus and the textbook can be evident in Figure 5.
Figure 5
An initial analysis of the readings and the audio exercises in the textbook, made it
evident that the contents proposed by the textbook are focused on the British English variation and cultural context.
The information previously stated gives us a local panorama of how genuine is the phenomenon of native and non-native dichotomy in teaching materials. The textbooks used in these institutions portray a narrow vision of language. This view follows a Colonial discourse
in the sense that it emphasizes on the material produced by British publishing houses and it reinforces the Colonial ideas in which the knowledge produced by the center (Britain) is the
prestigious one and it deserves to be followed (Quijano, 1992).
Research Questions and Objectives
Research Question
What kinds of discourses are portrayed by English language textbooks in regards to the native and non-native dichotomy in ELT?
Research Objectives
To analyze the implicit tensions in the native and non-native dichotomy as well as the implications that the supremacy given to the use of the native speaker myth could
bring to the EFL field.
To identify if the contents proposed by the textbooks Speakout and English Result are adequate for the Colombian context and the kind of ideologies the textbooks transmit to its users.
Justification
The importance of this study relies on the way it empowers local teachers and students to reflect upon the teaching and learning practices that are being conducted in our country. By thinking about the cultural and social implications of certain teaching and learning practices,
teachers and pupils are called to resist the colonial discourses in which foreign language teaching has been immersed over the years. This project not only focuses its attention on the
understanding of the colonial practices that have been implemented in foreign language education, but it also studies the acts of resistance that foreign scholars have taken in order to
reject colonial impositions in the language field.
action. Thereby, this project is ascribed to the discourse studies within educational contexts in the sense that it focuses its attention on revealing colonial and resistance discourses in foreign
language teaching. In this specific case, the discourses of teaching materials such as textbooks coming from British and American publishing houses.
By doing so, it also accounts for the socio-cultural implications of using those
textbooks as the only resource in the classroom, which consequently will have an impact on the students and teachers’ perception towards the way English should be spoken in order to be
Chapter II
Literature Review
Foreign language education implies the use of different teaching materials that allow
teachers and students to have a starting point to enhance their English skills as proposed by international language frameworks (Alptekin, 1990). Nevertheless, as it was stated in the
previous chapter, representations of the Anglo-American and British culture seem to be still quantitatively and qualitatively favored in ELT textbooks (Basabe, 2006).
Thus, it becomes relevant for this research to emphasize on the different sociocultural
implications brought by the existence of the native and non-native dichotomy in English teaching textbooks. Aspects such as Colonial and Decolonial discourses and the Top-Down
and Bottom- Up models of education need to be emphasized as a means to understand how that dichotomy is shaped. Hence, a theoretical discussion around those concepts is going to be
presented in this chapter and can be summarized by the following diagram.
Figure 6
Theoretical Discussion
Top- Down model of education
Native and Non-native Dichotomy
Bottom- Up Model of Education
The theoretical discussion was developed having as a theoretical focus the native and non-native dichotomy from which different sub-discussions emerge. Thus, addressing the
native and non-native dichotomy as the core term helps to start explaining how the discourses portrayed in English textbooks have an ideological implication in its users.
Native and Non-Native Dichotomy
Over time, as different authors have supported (Navarro, 1993; Crystal, 2003; Bhowmik, 2005), the Native English Speaker (NES henceforth) has gained a privileged position in the field of English language teaching. This is based on the fact that the language
variation that they use is considered as the epitome and the gold standard (Walkinshaw & Oanh, 2014). As a consequence of this, the Non-Native English Speaker (NNES henceforth)
experiences inequality, because, despite the use of the terms NES and NNES are both used in the literature of English learning and teaching, the use of the “native speaker” term occupies a
favored position (Davies, 2003) basically because the NES term is used as a benchmark in
English education or in other words as the model to be followed when studying English.
Despite authors such as Kachru (1985) have demonstrated that the global spread of
English has had as a result not only native- nonnative interactions, and considering the fact as Lowenberg (as cited in Bhowmik, 2015) asserts nowadays nonnative-native interactions are more frequent in international communication, ELT keeps on choosing British or American
English as the primary language of instruction.
Although the upward situation of the English speaking population, English language teaching faces an “unstable equilibrium” (Bhowmik, 2015). In terms of Seidlhofer (2011) due
to the fact that the number of NNES has arisen and can be compared or surpassed the number
the supremacy of the native speaker remains even if they are not favored in terms of numbers. That is, among many other reasons, why aspects of ELT such as: determining the norms for
teaching, designing syllabus and producing materials are controlled by native English speaking countries.
In this respect, the perpetuated notion of the ideal native speaker as the standard to be
followed needs to be demystified as it has been stated by Davies (2003). In this respect, it is necessary to mention that English has been referred by different authors as an accepted
international language worldwide (Johnson, 2009; Halliday, 2003). This is so because of the quantity of speakers that it has all around the world (native and non-native ones).
As a matter of fact, Crystal (as cited in Crank, 2015) proposes two determining factors
to allow a language to achieve the status of global language: “having a wide geo-political extent of influence and being the native language of countries that are powerful culturally, technologically and economically” (p. 47). On this matter, and based on the current situation
of English, it fulfills the requirements proposed by Crystal.
However, the requirements that make English a global language have an ideological
and social background that needs to be analyzed in depth. It has been mentioned in different studies that having English as an international language “is not simply a linguistic issue, but rooted in economic, political and cultural issues" (Mahboob, 2005, p.79). Those issues are
going to be analyzed in depth in the next section of the theoretical framework as a means to portray the domination executed by international institutions and organization in charge of
Coloniality in ELT
As time went by, the use of different languages around the world has been tied to the historical, geographical and social changes that the world has faced during its process of
evolution. According to Mignolo (2009), aspects such as the colonial domination lived in the 18th and 19th centuries, in which British imperialism legacy had as a result a colonial
expansion of British population to different territories around the world, had an impact regarding the imposition of English language in territories where the mother tongue was a
different one.
To explore how empowered countries have spread domination processes to different territories over the years, it becomes significant to identify how Standard English has been
considered as a prestigious variation that must be spoken in the outer and expanding circles countries as explained by Kachru (1985), and how this language imposition has had
implications in people’s perception regarding language prestige and status.
In fact, despite non-native speakers have to face an English speaking world in which native speakers are the core and in that sense they have to fit to what is proposed by them, the
arisen and constant spread of non-native speakers cannot be denied. According to Kohn (2011), in Europe and around the world the number of non-native speakers is increasing in
numbers, and a high quantity of them use their own version of English for their own authentic communication purposes. Thus, it is at this point where the ownership of the language is debatable because different varieties of English emerge and often they are “imbued with local favors and senses” (Kaur & Raman, 2014: 253). Notwithstanding, these diverse varieties are
In regards to this fact, different authors have argued in favor of non-native speakers’ right to ownership of English, one of the is Graddol (1997) who stated that “native speakers
may feel the language belongs to them, but it will be those who speak English as a second or foreign language who will determine its world future” (pp.10).
Paradoxically, although the target role of native speaker as the core on English
language and the pattern to be followed has been highly contested, the preponderancy of native English trend seems to predominate and different authors have tried to maintain this
conception, this is the case of Crystal (2003) who stated:
In my ideal world, everyone would have fluent command of a single world language. I am already in the fortunate position of being a fluent user of the language
which is most in contention for this role, and have cause to reflect every day on the benefits of having it at my disposal. (p. 13.)
Thus, this misconception of the native English standard as the ideal way to speak has certain implications in English teaching and can be situated in our context regarding the standards proposed policy makers in Colombia, as it was stated by Guerrero and Quintero’s (2009) criticism to MEN’s document (2006) Estándares Básicos de Competencias en
Lenguas extranjeras: Inglés in which English language is seen as a neutral language and is expected to be spoken by “ideal speakers” who do not have linguistic conflicts of any sort; in
this approach teacher and learners are informed about what they must learn in order to follow patterns proposed by the Common European Framework. Thus, based on the fact that ideal
proficiency, so non-native speakers are obliged to follow patterns in order to be part of the accepted linguistic standard of the language.
Based on that, it is essential to identify how colonial perspectives have evolved overtime and to know what colonialism is for the sake of understanding how this trend of thought has influenced in perceptions of language use. The term colonialism is referred to
address the different domination mechanisms carried out by Europe in which it was necessary to achieve a corporal and mental dominance of populations that dwelled the American
territory in colonial times (Quijano, 2000). Hence, in language teaching terms, coloniality is
taken as the lengthening of domination mechanisms and power structures that have remained within the linguistic field and, which have shaped the thought of their speakers. A clear
example of this is proposed by Ramanathan (2013):
Grounded perspectives of postcolonial engagements prod us to consider ways in which
policies are not just top-down mandates that shape our engagements in the world, but live, dynamic forces that find their viability and articulation in the policies proposed by colonial settings: institutions, pedagogic practices, school settings,
teacher-education programs and disciplinary orientations that have tended to remain largely marginalized in West-based applied linguistic research (p.83)
Thence, based on this legitimation of West-based policies, it is necessary to highlight how the colonialism in terms of knowledge has been a remarkable aspect to depict language domination processes all around the world. Colonialism of knowledge consists on the use of
wisdom and it is justified only by the minds born and raised in colonial environments. In other words, colonial cognitive production was legitimated as superior over the knowledge
the myth that Europe and the denominated modernist countries were the only countries in which knowledge production was trustworthy (Quijano, 1992).
It is at this point in which knowledge dominance represents a strong aspect that influences in language use. Language allows human social interactions that shape people´s perceptions towards themselves. In such a way, they feel they belong to a determined
community and they construct subjectivities and diverse ways to interpret the world. (Almonacid, 2015).
The language is an inner faculty of the human beings, instrument of thought, activity and the most important mean of communication… With language we reduce and
order the perception of our surroundings. It is so bound to our thought to the extent
that the lack of language, or an equivalent signs system, make human hints of intelligence disappear (Espejo, 1991, p. 83)
To relate how language and knowledge are seen from the perspective of foreign language teaching in a decolonial perspective it is necessary to regard the historical process that FL has faced in postcolonial and decolonial countries and how language domination has
been present in the social dynamics and development of these countries.
Thereupon, it is crucial to review what has been proposed by Ramanathan (2013) who
stated that European colonial powers had assumed the right to endorse entire non-Western countries and have “rationalized their take-over in terms of prevailing discourses that viewed
non-Western people as inferior, incapable of looking after themselves (despite having done so
As a consequence of the previous statements the policies that English colonial powers set, in the field of education, help them in the endeavor of controlling the intellectual
production in English language. As a result, vernacular languages in local context were left aside in educational contexts.
Based on this succinct historical review of dominance, perpetuated by those countries
that have had a favored position because of its socio cultural and economic processes and its influence in the way in which English language teaching is conducted nowadays, this
research study is going to present in further paragraphs different theoretical references which
aimed to propose a decolonial perspective of language teaching. This perspective relates to how western rules and patterns are left aside and vernacular languages can be included in the
development of curriculum in teaching contexts.
English Teaching Models: Top-Down vs. Bottom-Up
Over the years, English language has gained prestige and power (Brutt-Griffler, 2002).
This fact has led to the suppression or displacement of other languages and consequently to the disarray of imperialist languages1. That is the reason why it is necessary a full awareness of the mechanisms of the spread of English around the world. This can be so by considering,
in terms of Phillipson (1992) a thesis and antithesis, in order to understand the legitimacy of arguments of both those who foster the dissemination of English and those who are against it.
Firstly, it is important to look back at the historical facts which have had as result the supremacy of English over other languages, and more exactly to the inclination that
native English speakers have had for a Native English pronunciation. This has affected socio cultural and ideological representations taken from the native speaker model. In other words,
language becomes the artifact to trigger socio cultural ideas on its users.
If we take a look at the historical implications of this fact, the phenomenon of a native-like pronunciation imposition dates back to the First World War. In those times, 1910, private
foundations paid for academic exchanges between the US and countries involved in the war and they supported the teaching of English in those nations. At that time it was felt that one of the roots of international conflict was linguistic misunderstandings. Then nations joined
efforts to devise simplified forms of English and this would make easier international understanding (Ninkovich as cited in Phillipson, 1992).
This phenomenon in Baker’s (2006) words is considered as “schizoglossia” because non- native English speakers consider that their language is not compared with the standard
performed by native speakers. These variations are considered as more prestigious and will help them to improve their communication and avoid linguistic misunderstandings.
Soon after, as White (1965) asserted, the British Council suggested an expansion of
cultural propaganda activities in the outer circle countries (Kachru, 1985). They congregated a body of business men and educational experts to take into consideration a plan for
promoting the English teaching abroad as well as a broader understanding of the British culture. Notwithstanding, this institution was aiming at something deeper than just promoting the learning of the English language. They wanted to disseminate knowledge about their
culture and philosophy of life. In this sense, the British Council became the key agency for developing the teaching of English worldwide. In fact, this institution not only pursued
Those events show how a language choice has not only linguistic implications, but, as stated by Pennycook (2004) it also causes struggles for dominance against other languages.
This implies conflicts in the construction of identity, community and local culture. When an individual decides to learn and use English, during the second language acquisition process, there are ideological and social choices immersed.
This domination and ideological control has been addressed by different authors, such Canagarajah (1999) who refers to the term “hidden agenda” as the way language is molded
for political and ideological agendas, transforming them into a hegemonic and oppressive system. This hidden agenda was disseminated by the British Council in the sense that it was and still is an independent institution which promotes British culture abroad. Not only they
promoted language´s learning but all aspects of social life. They encourage global
understanding of the British culture. Nevertheless, this understanding meant to attempt to
make foreign speakers anglophiles (Phillipson, 1992).
All these helped the British Council to be considered the supreme authority in
language teaching in 1950. Learning English was seen as a means to commercialize English
books, talk to British people and learn about British life. English knowledge was also
essential for the study of many branches of science and technology (White, 1965). Hence, the
constant use of English for different social purposes made it relevant the ideology of the native speaker as a model and target in English language teaching. Because of the previous issues, the non-native speakers of English are seen as deficient compared to the standard
imposed by native speakers.
Attitudes towards what could be considered a prestigious language are evident and have been highlighted by Holliday (2005) who states that although local English varieties are
native speakers’ English accent. These accents are favored because they represent a success symbol and they are seen as a symbol of educational status in many parts of the world
(Shohamy, 2004). This is not far from what the British Council intended to do by the end of the Second World War. They created foreign anglophiles who could be accepted in an eminent society by using a British English variation.
Thus, as English teaching became the field of expertise of the British Council, a small number of Council officers were influential in advisory work on syllabuses, teacher training, and methods of teaching in periphery-English countries. In regards to textbooks, the British
Council provided consultation, so as to improve their quality (White, 1965). In this matter, British publishers released what they considered as “excellent textbooks” compared to the
ones designed by local institutions. They claimed that by that time, little professional expertise in English teaching was developed in periphery countries.
Taking into consideration the information previously stated and although English standard still enjoy a privileged status, the domination perpetuated by economically and socially empowered countries is crumbling. Pedagogical aspects such as: curriculum, teaching
practices and educational standards are slowly being modified under the impact of the shifts that take place in the real world of English communication (Kohn, 2011).
That is the reason why some educational institutions are taking into account the real needs of language learners. They are including the use of non- standard variations and
intercultural contact situations to move the traditional language teaching away from the native
speaker. In such a way, they can implement more realistic pedagogical approaches in which the language is seen in real use, by authentic speakers who deal with the situations that may
The thesis of the increased supremacy of English needs to have a counterpart of opposition as a means to resist that hegemony. This resistance has emerged from many places
around the world and in most cases, the opponents are or were colonized people from non-native English nations. They fight for the purity of language that English imposes.
Paradoxically the protesting group also includes intellectuals from core and periphery English countries. In Phillipson’s words (1992) what these protesters have in common is a recognition
of evidence of linguistic imperialism and dominance, and a desire to combat it.
As a matter of fact, different authors around the world have conducted studies regarding this phenomenon. For instance, even if policymakers reproduce a perception in which learning and teaching native English implies becoming part of the prestigious speech
community, many authors have focused their studies on showing why this perception will be changed in further years. Such is the case of Graddol (2006) who conducted an analysis of the demographic, economic, technological, societal and linguistic forces under which English is
currently becoming a global perspective and he forecasts the end on the foreign language teaching based on native speaking models.
Therefore, over time the word “foreign” has been considered as something that should
be corrected by training and practice (Kaur & Raman, 2014). It is at this point when there is
the need of a model of English language teaching that could be based on the proficient, international speaker of English. However, according to Seidlhofer (2011) an ideal English instruction does not compare between native and non-native speakers norms and accents but
gives priority to the relevance and intelligibility in the language.
For that reason, it is necessary to leave aside the conception of a uniform language
matter of fact, the imposition of a target pronunciation is difficult to devise in pedagogical purposes due to the intelligibility principle proposed by Levis (2005) in which the native
variation has been long-held reference point in the practice of pronunciation teaching.
Nevertheless, as it was stated by Derwing & Munro (2005) it is widely believed that “there is no single and universally-agreed-upon definition and measure of intelligibility in language
teaching because of the constant increasing number of variations that English faces nowadays” (p. 382).
Additionally, the diversity claimed in terms of pronunciation in previous paragraphs, has a relationship with the use of materials designed by core English countries Periphery countries have the tendency to reproduce the knowledge provided by textbooks without any
modification or adaptation to the local context in which they are used. In Pennycook’s (2010, p. 107) terms “the reproduction of genetic material is not always reproduction”. This means that even if educational policies expect the teachers to use the textbooks as a basis of their
teaching practice, local teachers could add small changes to the ways they do and say things. These teaching practices that involve local knowledge can promote a local development of the
language.
In such a way, local teaching practices will not be focused on following materials, but
on recycling processes of the traditional knowledge and adapting them to local contexts. In sum, “to play with familiar creations without fear that it thereby denies the opportunity to be truly creative” (Shusterman, 2000, p. 64-65). It means that creative local practices could be
Chapter III Research Design
Based on the theoretical constructs already explored in chapter two, in which the native and non-native dichotomy in EFL was seen from the perspectives of colonial and decolonial studies as well as from the top-down and bottom-up models, this current chapter
will describe the way in which this research was conducted.
As a means to show the coherence between the research design and the purpose of the project, it is important to mention that the main objective of this study was to unveil the
discourses portrayed by two English textbooks used in a public and a private university in Colombia. Based on this purpose, this chapter describes the type of study this project is
ascribed to, the particularities of the context (social actors involved) and a description of what constitutes the data and the theory that was used to conduct a textbook analysis.
Type of Study
The research paradigm under which this study was developed is the qualitative one. This study focused on developing explanation of social phenomena, which helps the
researcher to understand the socio cultural and ideological implications that this phenomenon may lead to (Silverman, 1997). This paradigm allowed this study to gather detailed
information as a view to understand and analyze the data through words and build a complete
understanding of the issue that was studied. In addition, it also helped to understand how people make meaning and interpret a phenomenon (Creswell & Clark, 2011). As this study
attempted to analyze the phenomenon of the native and non-native dichotomy in EFL materials, it is necessary to understand the social implications that this phenomenon may entail.
the case in this study that attempts to analyze how the dichotomy phenomenon has certain implications in the society and more specifically in the field of second language teaching.
Besides that, this approach allowed the researcher to have access and to interpret a reality that is socially constructed and generates qualitative primary data(Creswell, 2003).That is why the qualitative part of this study relied on the way the dichotomy has implications in the
positioning of the English language in the society and how the native and non- native speakers are positioned in social terms inside the textbooks. To sum up, this approach has a clear relationship with the paradigm already explained and constitutes the basis of the analysis
that was conducted by interpreting data included in textbooks.
The Social Actors Involved
The use of textbooks in ELT has different actors involved. They have an impact on the choices made by institutions when selecting a book to guide the teaching methodologies in the English classes. That is why when it comes to refer to the phenomenon of the native and
non-native dichotomy in English textbooks, it is necessary to take into consideration that this phenomenon is lived by real people. In this case, the actors that are involved in the selection
and use of the textbooks as well as the real context that provides English courses.
It is necessary to mention all the social actors that are of paramount importance in this study. Although they do not represent a source for the collection of information, all of them
play a role in the native and non-native dichotomy presented in the textbooks. In a
hierarchical order, one can say that the textbooks are the first tool in any language teaching
context. They shape students and teachers’ conceptions of the language and of the world based on their contents. A second support that is involved in this phenomenon is the teachers. They make decisions about the way they want to conduct their classes and most of the times
regarding the textbook to be used, teachers accept and adapt their teaching methodologies in the classroom. The last actor involved in the process, is the publishing houses which are the
ones that design the contents that are included in the textbooks.
Text and Context
This section is going to describe the textbooks that were analyzed in this study. This,
as a means to show that the native and non-native dichotomy in English textbooks is a real phenomenon they portray.
Based on the information stated in chapter one, in which a mismatch between the
institutional documents and material offered by a private university was evidenced, the first textbook that is going to be used in this analysis is called English Result by Oxford publishing
house. This textbook is a series of 4-level course books for adult learners designed by Mark Hancock and Annie MacDonald.
This textbook was chosen because according to its authors, a socio-cultural strand is
added to the syllabus and it allows students to think and reflect upon how language is used differently in different cultures Hancock and MacDonald (2011). Nevertheless, when working
inside the classroom with this material it is possible to notice a mismatch between what the authors propose and what is actually included in the textbook. The audio material
incorporated favors the British English variation (pronunciation) and culture. Thus, the
existence of the native and non-native dichotomy is evident.
Furthermore, according to the authors the textbook was designed based on four main
principles: practical, balanced, focused and achievable. It is practical because it presents the language as an ability so that students can use it in real life; it is balanced because it is given the same importance to each one of the five skills; it is focused because it states the main
since they have the opportunity to identify how successful their learning process is (Hancock & MacDonald, 2011).
According to Basabe (2006) “Textbooks belong in our cultural universe and are
powerfully inscribed in our social knowledge” (p.60). Through the textbooks we use, our learners are constantly exposed to these systems. So, it is almost mandatory to examine them
closely since there may be a direct relationship between the values and attitudes learners express and those found in the texts they work with.
As it was stated by Basabe (2006) in the previous paragraph, students are exposed to
the cultural systems portrayed in textbooks and these shape the way language and interaction is conceived. Now, to relate this aspect to the mismatches previously addressed, the diversity
and multiculturality proposed in the competences of the institution, as well as in the textbook, seem to be absent in the material used for the development of the classes. That is why it becomes necessary to examine closely the ideologies and discourses that this material brings
to the foreign language acquisition field.
To analyze how this phenomenon also occurs in public universities, the textbook that
was studied is called Speakout. It was developed by Pearson Publishing House. It is a series of 6 levels of proficiency course book and it was developed by the authors Frances Eales, JJ Wilson, Antonia Clare and Steve Oakes. This textbook, according to Oakes (2015) offers a
high level of authentic language content and contexts through videos provided by the BBC (British Broadcasting Corporation) which engages the students in an intellectual and
emotional way to their learning.
Due to the fact that this textbook is based on the authentic material provided by a British corporation, most of the information included there to enhance different skills
the university proposed in its institutional objective, as it was explored in the first chapter of this document.
What Constitutes Data in this Study
As it was mentioned in the previous paragraphs, the textbooks choice was carried out in order to make a comparative analysis of the materials used by two universities (a private
and a public one) and the discourses that they hold.
For that reason, what constitute the data for this study are the listening recordings. Emphasizing on this aspect allowed me to identify if the native and non-native dichotomy
phenomenon is present in those textbooks. However, some intertextual relationships were considered. Listening materials were usually complemented with images or readings from the
same textbooks or with external texts such as the media and theoretical references. These sources helped me to support the phenomenon (Appendix 1). Likewise, the textbooks analyzed in each case were the first series (elementary level) as a means to portray the
differences and similarities that these textbooks have in the same level of instruction. The set of data that was analysed in the textbooks were the listening activities. This was
due to the fact that they were one of the main elements that allowed students to approach the Anglophone world in the classroom. It is important to take into account that listening
exercises are expected to train students to be confident in their listening activity. Besides, they
give the listener an idea of the type on information to expect when interacting in actual conversations (The essentials of language teaching, n.d).
The criteria to choose the material was based on the recurrence of linguistic and non-linguistic factors associated to the NS and NNS dichotomy in the textbook series. For instance, there are visual, audio, and linguistic texts that show features of such dichotomy.
Based on that criterion, it was possible to identify that the English Result Textbook includes only a number of 8 oral NNS interventions, out of 76. The Speakout Textbook incorporates 7
oral interventions from NNS, out of 87. This can be seen in the chart below. Figure 7
NS and NNS Interventions in the Textbooks
Textbook NS Oral interventions
(Audios)
NNS Oral interventions (Audios)
English Result 76 8
Speakout 87 7
Based on that, the unit of analysis in those NNS oral interventions were the kinds of discourses portrayed by the audio material. Accordingly, considering that this study is
attempting to unveil the discourses presented in two textbooks used in a private and a public university in Colombia, this study uses the Critical Discourse Analysis (henceforth CDA) as a method to analyze the data. CDA represents a method to examine the discourse immersed in
the social context of society. It is grounded on critical basis that aim to analyze aspects such as social inequality, domination and power (Fairclough, 2003). As it was previously stated in
the theoretical framework, those aspects are key terms that are related to what the native and non-native dichotomy in English teaching material copes with.
In addition, as this study attempts to evidence if dominant discourses are immersed in
English textbooks, CDA is a useful research method because as it has been noted by Van Dijk (2004), it emphasizes on the dominant agents and the way in which those agents have created
and maintained the status quo of their knowledge through language. Moreover, in regards to the domination implied in the phenomenon that is being studied, Widdowson (2000) pointed out that CDA “is the uncovering of implicit ideology in texts, as it exposes underlying ideological bias and therefore, the exercise of power in texts” (p.7). Hence, based on the
interpret the discourses immersed in the contents of the textbooks that are going to be examined in this study.
To completely analyse the formal and social aspects immersed in English textbooks, a model of textual analysis proposed by Fairclough (1992) was considered. In this model both content and form should be analysed as complementary processes to give account of a
phenomenon. Textual analysis also has two complementary types of analysis which are linguistic and intertextual analysis, being the linguistic analysis a sense that covers not only the traditional linguistic aspects such as phonology, grammar and semantics but also textual
organization above the sentence, for instance the turn taking.
Besides conducting the analysis of the listening activities included in those textbooks, it
was necessary to create a matrix that stood for the identification of prosodic features (Hirts & Di Cristo, 1998) also called suprasegmental phonology that go beyond phonemes and manage the audible qualities of sound. The following prosodic aspects and the symbols that were used
to identify them in the data were considered:
Pause: Pause as hesitation is a non-fluency feature. Nevertheless, intentional pauses
are used to demarcate units of grammatical construction such as sentences or clauses. These can be indicated in writing by full stops, colons, semi-colons and commas. Pauses are represented by the symbol [P] in the data analysis.
Pitch: Different pitch levels, or intonation, can affect meaning. The most obvious
example is the way in which speakers raise the pitch at the end of a question. This is
indicated by a question mark in writing. However, patterns of rise and fall can indicate such feelings as astonishment, boredom or puzzlement. These can be shown in writing only in a special transcription. Pitch is represented by the symbol [{ ] in the data
Stress: Stress or emphasis is easy to use and recognise in spoken language but harder
to describe. A stressed word or syllable is usually preceded by a very slight pause, and
is spoken at slightly increased volume; it is going to be represented in the data by the symbol [~].
Volume: Apart from the slight increase in loudness to indicate stress, volume is
generally used to show emotions such as fear or anger. In writing, it can be shown by the use of an exclamation mark, or typographically with capitals or italics (or both). The symbol [<] is going to represent the volume in the data.
Tempo: Tempo or speed is to some extent a matter of idiolect. It can mark the
impatience and reflectiveness in the speech. The symbol [¨] is going to represent the
tempo in the data.
Additionally, it is necessary to identify if the audio material presented in those textbooks includes marks of differentiation of English variations and British accent. By doing so it is
possible to identify if those audios have a kind of connotation immersed. For that reason, pronunciation differences, which represent the way in which words should/ shouldn’t be
pronounced, is going to be included in the analysis of this data.
Thereby, to carry out the analysis process it was necessary to classify the information and code it in a chart. This chart included the symbols previously explained as well as the
phonetic transcription and they represent evident prosodic and pronunciation aspects in the data analysed.
The intertextual analysis draws attention to the dependence of texts upon the society and history. According to Fairclough (2003) it mediates between language and social context and facilitates bridging the gap between text and context. He further refers to a three-dimension
Intertextual Analysis
Although this framework was quite useful, some categories needed to be added to the matrix of analysis in order to have a balance of text, intertext and context exploration. Those
aspects helped me to carry out this study by using the principles proposed by the CDA theory. Thus, to make the intertextual and content analysis possible, I added some aspects that
allowed the development of a critical analysis in order to accomplish the purposes of a CDA
study.
Taking into consideration the social research themes proposed by Fairclough (2003), one
of the aspects that were included in the matrix of analysis is the pursuit of social categories that are going to be called themes. There, the categories taken from the coding are named and explained. Another emerging section was called text or practical realization. The examples
and extracts taken from the textbooks were included as a sample of the phenomenon. Straightaway, a section called intertext was included as a means to mediate between the
text that was being analyzed and different texts correlated. In Fairclough terms (2003:41) intertextuality “opens difference by bringing other voices” to create a dialogicality process in
the sense that the voice of the textbook will dialogue with other texts and authors to accept or
deny the phenomenon”. Finally, a section called social and critical implications was inserted with the purpose of adding a critical view and problematizing social issues such as
domination, inequity, power relationships, attitudes, beliefs, ideologies, among many others. Text
•Linguistic and Prosodic aspects
Intertext
•Connections with related texts. (other texts, literature)
Context
•Social implications of the
Chapter IV
Data Analysis and Findings
In this chapter the native and non-native dichotomy, in the contents of the listening
activities of two English textbooks, is analyzed from a CDA perspective. Such analysis is intended to answer the research question of this study: What are the discourses portrayed by
two English textbooks in regards to the native and non-native dichotomy in EFL?
Therefore, the analysis presented in this chapter is going to be divided into three parts. Firstly, the framework of analysis that was used is going to be explained. Thereafter, an
explanation of the steps followed to conduct the analysis is going to be included. Finally, each one of the categories that were defined and examples from the data collected are going to be
presented.
Framework of Analysis
The process of analysis in this research is framed on the CDA principles as proposed by Fairclough (2003). This because, as Fairclough (2003) further explains, “critical discourse analysis begins with a view of language as a social practice. It is a historically and socially placed action, both in itself socially shaped and socially shaping” (p. 14). Thus, CDA
provides elements to analyze the phenomenon of the native and non-native dichotomy in
textbooks through a social perspective. Besides, as this research project attempted to unveil the discourses immersed in English textbooks, the principles of CDA allowed the researcher to focus on the dominant groups and institutions and the way in which these create and
CDA allowed the researcher to take a critical stance in regards to the phenomenon and reflect upon it in an informed way. For instance, power abuse, inequity and social
asymmetries are some of the phenomena that CDA studies, and by using it, the researcher had the opportunity to reflect critically upon the social implications that these phenomena may bring to a community. In Widdowson (2000) words “critical discourse analysis is the
uncovering of implicit ideology in texts. It exposes underlying ideological bias and therefore, the exercise of power in texts” (p.7).
In addition, in order to develop a proper textbook analysis, the textbook itself was not
the only source of data. That is why the intertextual analysis proposed by Fairclough (2003) provides reliability to the research. This analysis promoted dialogicality “dialogue between
the voice of the author of a text and other voices, between the textbook and other literature sources” (Fairclough, 2003, p.41).
Considering the concept of dialogicality, the intertextual analysis was conducted by using three sources: the text, the intertext and the context proposed by Fairclough (2003) in which different text types (listening transcriptions, images, theoretical references and
supporting texts such as articles and the media) complemented the analysis process. The text is composed by the linguistic and prosodic aspects and allowed me to identify the formal
aspects of language and its purpose in the textbooks. The intertextis referred as the text interpretation and the connections with additional texts that help to complement the analysis by using the literature as main authoritative support. The context becomes the most important
stage in the sense that it mediates between the text and the discourses that are being transmitted to the society through them.
Hence, the way in which each one of the stages was carried out in the process of
The first stage of the analysis called the text was developed in order to identify linguistic and prosodic aspects of the language which were analyzed as a means to unveil their purposes
inside the textbooks. For that reason, a list of the prosodic aspects that were analyzed was specified in depth in the previous chapter. The following figure provides an example of the way in which the utterances found in the data had a discursive purpose in the textbook.
Figure 9
Prosodic Aspects Sample
As it can be seen in figure 9, conversational analysis allowed me to identify the way in which utterances were reflected in the discourses. In the analysis conducted, it was necessary to create different conventions to label the utterances inside the data. Each one of them was
described in the previous chapter. In this example the conventions [P] (pause) and [ ¨ ] (tempo) were reflecting the speed of speech and the way the speaker was feeling.
Additionally, as one of the main aspects to identify in the data was the dichotomy of
native and non-native English speakers, it was necessary to include phonetic transcriptions as means to identify the differences in pronunciation in each one of the speakers.
It was imperative to code the topics taken from the audio recordings and the images
(Appendix 1 and 3). That is why steps such as the identification of topics and topics coding
were useful to organize the data to be analyzed. Those steps were developed as illustrated in the following charts.
Figure 10
Topics Identification
Figure 11
Topics Coding
In figures 10 and 11, the topics identification and coding are explained. On the one hand, the topics identification was conducted taking into account each one of the interventions
developed based on the gathering of the topics identified which were classified in different sub-categories and turned into a broader category. Those broader categories were simplified
in a sentence and were explained by the practical realization, which is the way in which the discourse is shown in the textbook.
Finally, to explain the way in which the stages two and three, mentioned in previous
paragraphs as the intertext and the context were carried out, it is necessary to bear in mind the dialogicality process that was mentioned as an essential part this CDA study. The following figure is going to illustrate how the intertext and the context dialogue helped the researcher to
conduct the analysis of data.
Figure 12
Intertextual Analysis Sample
As it can be seen in the previous figure, the intertextual analysis process was conducted as part of the matrixes of analysis (Appendix 2 and 4). The categories included
them provides an aspect to be analyzed in order to identify the discourses immersed in the textbook. The chart can be explained as follows.
The chart explains the topics coding that gathers the commonalities of the data in one
sentence. Then, the practical realization that is the way in which the textbooks present the discourses. For that reason, examples taken from the book are included in this chart.
Subsequently, the intertext chart allows the connections between different data sources such as audio material and images. It also links the data sources to an authoritative source which is the literature. Finally, the context allowed me to make a bridge between the data and the
social implications that this phenomenon may have in the society. That is why each one of the categories included in the matrix has played an important role in the process of unveiling the
discourses portrayed in the textbooks that were analyzed in this study.
Subsequently, taking into account the framework of analysis previously explained to
organize and analyze the collected data, it was also imperative to take a look at the step-by-step procedures to carry out the analytical codes and identify the preliminary categories. Firstly, it was necessary to identify common patterns in the data, for that reason, taking into
account the topics retrieved from the data, it was necessary to name each one of the topic codings with a number and a color (Appendix 5), and identify the quantity of times that each
common pattern was repeated in the set of data. Then, these commonalities were gathered in groups as part of the topic coding. The following image illustrates this step.
Figure 13
Then, as figure 13 shows, each code was grouped taking into account its number and color. It was renamed in order to make sense for the categories that are going to be explained in further paragraphs. Once this step was done, it was necessary to identify different topics in
regards to the discourse portrayed by the text as a means to group each one of the subcategories that emerged. This can be seen in the next illustration.
Figure 14
Definition of categories groupin
Based on these steps, it was possible to identify the categories. Each one of them as
well as the evidence that support them is going to be explained in the following pages.
Categories of Analysis
The pursuit of emergent discourses in regards to the native and non-native dichotomy
aim, the first aspect to take into account in the statement of the categories, was the way in which the native speaker and the non-native speaker are represented in the textbooks in order
to identify the discourses portrayed in both sides of the coin of this dichotomy.
Therefore, it was necessary to divide this analysis in two categories which helped me to identify the characteristics and descriptions provided by the textbook in relation to the
nativism and non-nativism in the ELT field and to answer the research questions proposed for this study (Appendix 6). The first category represents the way in which the native speakers are represented in different aspects such as language use, cultural views, education and social
context. Considering those topics, the codings related to these aspects were grouped in order to illustrate with examples how they were represented in the text books.
Figure 15
This first category emerged and was named because in different extracts of the textbooks the native speaker was portrayed as a model to be followed in comparison to the
way the non-native speaker was shown.
Native Speaker as the Dominant Model to Be Followed
Over the years, native speakers have enjoyed a privileged position over other English
speakers in the global society based on the fact that their variation has been considered as the standard to be followed. In fact authors such as Walkinshaw and Oanh (2014) have positioned
the variation used by native speakers as the “epitome and gold standard”. Assertions as the one made by Walkinshaw and Oanh have allowed me to identify the reliability of this category. As the native speaker variation is considered the gold standard, its reproduction in
textbooks triggers the discourse of the dominant position in the ELT field.
Therefore, it is necessary to indicate how the textbooks are reproducing those dominant discourses which are materialized in the society through language, education and
socio cultural context. The following paragraphs illustrate with examples the emergent discourses that were analyzed in regards to those matrixes.
Idealized Language Performance
In terms of language, the textbooks analyzed position the native speaker as a very
proficient speaker in comparison to the non-native speaker, this aspect is evident in prosodic aspects such as the speed of the speech, the pronunciation and the vocabulary used by its speakers.
