Trade, sustainable development and gender
Papers prepared in support of the themes discussed at the
Pre-UNCTAD X Expert Workshop on Trade, Sustainable Development
and Gender
(Geneva, 12-13 July 1999)
The views expressed in this volume are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the UNCTAD secretariat.
The designations employed and the presentation of material do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the United Nations secretariat concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.
Material in this publication may be freely quoted or reprinted, but acknowledgement is requested, together with a reference to the document number. A copy of the publication containing the quotation or reprint should be sent to the UNCTAD secretariat.
CONTENTS
Page
FOREWORD ...9-10
PREFACE ...11-12
OPENING STATEMENT BY THE CHAIRPERSON OF THE EXPERT WORKSHOP ...13-15
Part I. Forging Links between Trade, Sustainable Development and Gender:
Selected Policy and Implementation Issues...19-131
Reinforcing the links between trade, sustainable development and gender, an overview of the papers of the Expert Workshop
Frederick Glover, International Trade Development Consultant; Gloria-Veronica Koch, UNCTAD Focal Point on Women and
Dieter Koenig, Competitiveness and Technological Capacity-Building Section, Enterprise Development Branch, Division on
Investment, Technology and Enterprise Development, UNCTAD...21-31
A gender-analytical perspective on trade and sustainable development
Susan Joekes, Fellow, Institute of Development Studies (IDS), University of Sussex,
Brighton, United Kingdom...33-59
Current concerns on the interrelationship between trade, sustainable development and gender
Janice Goodson Foerde, International Coalition for Development Action (ICDA),
Brussels, Belgium, and KULU (Women and Development), Copenhagen, Denmark ...61-79
Notes on trade, sustainable development and gender
Patricia Bifani-Richard, International Consultant on Gender
and Development, Instituto de Estudios Políticos para América Latina y Africa (IEPALA),
Madrid, Spain ...81-89
Côte d’Ivoire: responding to gender aspects of trade and sustainable development Diblété Helène Koné, Deputy Director of Economic and Foreign
Investment Promotion, Ministry of Industrial Development and Small and Medium-sized Enterprises (SMEs),
Page
The Philippine experience in integrating trade, sustainable development and gender
Ruth D. Samonte-Limjuco, Ambassador, Special Assistant to the Undersecretary for International Economic Relations, Department of Foreign Affairs,
Manila, Philippines ...97-122
Some actions for consideration: a discussion paper
Joan Dudik-Gayoso, Senior Advisor, Science, Technology and Development Policy, and Elly Tsai, Research Assistant, Office of Science and Technology Cooperation,
Bureau for Oceans and Environmental and Scientific Affairs, United States
Department of State, Washington, United States ...123-131
Part II. Globalization and Gender...133-177
Globalization, international investment and gender
Padma Mallampally, Senior Project Expert on Foreign Direct Investment, International Investment, Transnationals and Technology Branch,
Division on Investment, Technology and Enterprise Development,
UNCTAD...135-140
An Asian view of globalization, employment, environment and gender
Jayati Ghosh, Associate Professor, Centre for Economic Studies and Planning, School of Social Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University,
New Delhi, India ...141-146
Responding to globalization: an action-research agenda for home-based workers Marilyn Carr, Senior Research Fellow, Programmes’ Branch, International Development Research Centre (IDRC), Ottawa, Canada and Martha Alter Chen,
Harvard University, MA., United States ...147-148
Globalization and gender in transition economies
Ewa Ruminska-Zimny, Associate Professor/Consultant Human Development Report, Warsaw School of Economics,
Warsaw, Poland ...149-162
Poland’s economy in transition: a gender perspective
Maria Anna Knothe, Founder and President of the Center for the Advancement of Women,
Page
Women’s participation in economic development and trade: the Lithuanian experience
Raimonda Balniene, Associate Professor, Deputy Director of International Business School at Vilnius University,
Vilnius, Lithuania ...171-173
Women in an emerging economy
Claudio Ortiz, General Manager, Chamber of Commerce,
Santiago, Chile ...175
Poverty and globalization in Bolivia
Zulema Alanes Bravo, Delegate, Academy of Sciences of Bolivia,
La Paz, Bolivia ...177
Part III. Trade-Related Aspects and Gender...179-344
Trade openness, employment and women: the case of Uruguay María Inés Terra, Faculty of Economics and Administration, University of the Republic (UDELAR),
Montevideo, Uruguay ...181-188
Ethical trade and gender: exports of non-traditional horticultural products Stephanie Barrientos, Business School, University of Hertfordshire,
Hertford, United Kingdom ...189-196
The post-MFA challenges to the Bangladesh textile and clothing sector Debapriya Bhattacharya, Executive Director, Centre for Policy Dialogue,
Dhaka, Bangladesh ...197-232
Pakistan’s cloth and leather exports: environmental aspects and mitigation costs
Shahrukh Rafi Khan, Mahmood A. Khwaja, Abdul Matin Khan, and Sajid Kazmi, Sustainable Development Policy Institute, Islamabad, and Haider Ghani Mian, Senior Coordinator, Environmental Economics Programme,
IUCN – The World Conservation Union,
Page
Trade and sustainable development of Thailand’s fisheries sector Mingsarn Kaosa-ard, Associate Professor, Faculty of Economics, Chiang Mai University, and Director, Center for Sustainable Development Studies,
Chiang Mai, Thailand ...253-260
Gender and renewable resources nexus in the South Pacific Amos Taporaie, Diversification and Natural Resources, Commodities Branch, Division on International Trade in Goods and Services, and Commodities,
UNCTAD ...261-262
Trade, sustainable development and gender in the forestry sector Sophia Twarog, Trade, Environment and Development Section, Division on International Trade in Goods and Services,
and Commodities,
UNCTAD ...263-278
Mainstreaming gender concerns: efforts and lessons learned in the Philippine agriculture and forestry sector
Beatriz P. Del Rosario, Officer-in-Charge and Supervising Science Research Specialist, and Maruja de Villa Lorica, Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Resources Research and Development (PCARRD), Department of Science and Technology,
Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines ...279-289
Promoting effective integration of women into cooperative research and development projects
Salete Maria Brisighello, General Coordinator on Technological Areas, Secretariat of Industrial Technology, Ministry of Development,
Industry and Commerce
Brasilia, Brazil ...291-292
Agriculture and commodities: gender issues proposed for research Gabrielle Koehler, International Investment, Transnationals and Technology Flows Branch, Division on Investment, Technology and Enterprise Development,
UNCTAD...293-295
International trade in health services: the case of the nursing profession Cathi Eisenring, Faculty of Economics, University of Zürich,
Page
Meeting the challenge of integrating women into the national and the international economy: a South African perspective
Namane Magau, Executive Vice-President: Human Resources, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research,
Pretoria, South Africa...303-308
The Technology for Women in Business (TWIB) Programme in South Africa Matfobhi Riba, Enterprise Development Branch (EDB), Division on Investment, Technology and Enterprise Development (DITE),
UNCTAD...309-310
Increasing the participation of women in trade and development in Cameroon
Pouédogo Pouédogo, Economist (Chargé de Recherches), Department of Industrial Development and Handicraft, Ministry of Industrial and Commercial Development
Yaoundé, Cameroon...311-317
Constraints on women-owned SMEs in lesser advanced countries of Africa Leyla Khaïat, President, World Association of Women Entrepreneurs (FCEM),
Tunis, Tunisia...319-326
Access to financial services for women entrepreneurs
Masoumeh Sahami-Malmberg, Chief, SME Support Services Unit, Division for Services Infrastructure for Development and
Trade Efficiency,
UNCTAD...327-332
Mainstreaming gender in enterprise development
Lorraine Ruffing, Chief, Enterprise Development Branch, and Günther Fischer, Enterprise Development Branch,
Division on Investment, Technology and Enterprise Development,
UNCTAD...333-342
Review of ITC activities focused on gender and trade development
Sabine Meitzel, Senior Training Officer, Division of Trade Support Services, International Trade Centre (ITC),
Page
Part IV. Specific Problems of Least Developed Countries and Gender...345-443
LDCs in a globalizing world: a strategy for gender-balanced sustainable development
Magdalena T. Kaihuzi, Administrator and Planning Manager, Tanzania National Women’s Council (BAWATA),
Dar es Salaam, United Republic of Tanzania...347-367
Major trade and gender issues in Ethiopia
Nigest Haile, Head, Women’s Affairs Department, Ministry of Trade and Industry,
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia...369-379
Women and trade in Uganda
Sarah Kitakule, Senior Advisor, Policy and Regulatory Reform, USAID – Presto Project, Focal Point Leader for Women in Trade, CEEWA Project,
Kampala, Uganda...381-389
Problems of SMEs and cross-border informal trade Maria Tendai Dendere, Assistant Deputy Director,
Gender Issues Department, Office of the President and Cabinet,
Harare, Zimbabwe...391-395
Trade, sustainable development and gender: the case of the United Republic of Tanzania
Godius W. Kahyarara, Centre for Environmental Economics and Development Research (CEDR),
Dar es Salaam, United Republic of Tanzania...397-406
An LDC business-woman’s perspective on issues related to trade, sustainable development and gender
Mary Marealle, Tanzania National Women’s Council (BAWATA),
Dar es Salaam, United Republic of Tanzania...407-410
A note on Southern African perspectives on trade, sustainable development and gender
Peggy Mlewa, Senior Economist, Department of Commerce and Trade, Ministry of Commerce, Trade and Industry,
Page
Involving stakeholders in policy-making: the case of export-oriented shrimp culture in Bangladesh
Mustafizur Rahman, Professor, Faculty of Business Studies, University of Dhaka,
Dhaka, Bangladesh...415-422
Tourism and gender: opportunities for LDCs in an intensified global economy Anna Fälth, Associate Expert, Assistant to the UNCTAD Focal Point on Women,
UNCTAD...423-434
Status of trade, sustainable development and gender issues in Nepal Mahesh Kumar Agrawal, President, Nepal Chamber of Commerce,
Kathmandu, Nepal...435-443
Part V. Agreed Conclusions and Recommendations...445-451
FOREWORD
The Pre-UNCTAD X Expert Workshop on Trade, Sustainable Development and Gender met at UNCTAD, Geneva, 12-13 July 1999 at the same time as the last annual session of ECOSOC in the current century. The work of ECOSOC in this session was extremely pertinent to the theme of this Workshop. It focused on the role of employment in the eradication of poverty and on the empowerment and advancement of women.
A major economic crisis has swept through much of the developing world in recent years and millions of people have been rudely thrust into the ranks of the unemployed. A disproportionate number of the new jobless are women – some of whom had only recently joined the labour force. For those fortunate enough to remain in employment, the outlook is not much brighter, for we live in an age of insecurity, especially job-insecurity.
The gender effect of globalization is complex and its effects are mixed. Overall, globalization to date has done too little to minimize gender inequalities. While in some circumstances it may have decreased them (particularly in countries where it had led to an unprecedented employment of female labour) in other cases it has intensified them. Thus, overall globalization, as a new form of intensified market-driven activity, has not yet managed to overturn gender-based, discriminatory forces of economic development where they have been traditionally at work.
As shown in UNCTAD’s contribution to the 1999 World Survey on the Role of Women in Development, the gender impacts of trade expansion have been most sharply and directly observed in the manufacturing sector. The increased orientation of manufacturing production towards exports in developing countries has led to significant increases in the share of women workers employed in the manufacturing sector labour force. Indeed, no developing country has increased its exports of manufactures without some recourse to women workers. This gives rise to an important stylized fact of development within the context of globalization. Industrialization has been as much female-as export-led, and in some situations this hfemale-as represented a huge leap forward in the participation of women in the money economy.
There is also evidence that the rapidly expanding international business and financial services sector is also female-intensive. This is certainly true of activities at the more unskilled labour-intensive end of the spectrum, usually known as data entry. Increasingly, since at least the mid-1980s, data-reliant service corporations, such as credit card providers, mail order businesses, airlines and rail transport systems, have sent transactions data to be processed offshore. The labour force involved in these operations has included at least as high a proportion of women workers as that attained in the export-manufacturing sector.
In the context of globalization, UNCTAD’s contribution has consistently underlined that the fundamental need is for the trade policies and globalization processes to integrate the gender impacts of openness. The importance of gender equality objectives for developmental goals, as well as in their own right, has been positively demonstrated in recent years. The fact that open economic policies can have a salient influence on promoting or hindering progress in this direction, and the ways in which this influence is manifested, need to be acknowledged.
therefore include basic consideration of the gender impact of existing and proposed trade policies.
UNCTAD has always been concerned not only to examine patterns of trade but also to assess the contribution that trade makes to development. Paying attention to gender allows us to deepen both our appraisal of the disposition of resource endowments on which trade depends and our assessment of the nature and developmental significance of the distribution of the gains from trade.
It is imperative to make global arrangements in trade much more supportive of the greater participation of women in development, both as agents and as beneficiaries. At the threshold of the new century, globalization is clearly an unfinished business, a work in progress. But this process can still be steered and shaped according to human values. It is our duty to respond fully and effectively to this challenge.
Taking a micro-economic view, it is striking that very few women entrepreneurs actually succeed in entering international markets. The legal environment continues to impact negatively on women’s entrepreneurship. Conflicts between customary practice and state law often obstruct the full and effective participation of women in the enterprise sector. The major obstacles are readily identified: limited, often negligible, access to capital, land, production inputs, business premises, information on business opportunities, networking and business and management training. Women entrepreneurs often lack confidence, largely due to the absence of role models, and continue to suffer gender biases. By and large, governmental assistance for the development of women’s entrepreneurship remains stubbornly insufficient in all countries, but particularly in the developing countries, with existing support programmes mainly focusing on self-employment and micro-enterprise development.
The main challenge for the international community is therefore to effectively articulate the case for greater access of women to national and global economic activities. Following the Beijing Platform of Action, UNCTAD IX recommended at Midrand (South Africa) that UNCTAD’s policies and programmes needed to integrate a gender perspective in order to contribute to the empowerment of women and to achieve equality between women and men in all sectors of the economy. In the context of the preparations for UNCTAD X, the Expert Workshop was organized to provide constructive conclusions and recommendations for further consideration by the Conference.
The Expert Workshop has been the first such meeting to consider in a conceptually integrated fashion issues of trade, sustainable development and gender, within the context of UNCTAD’s mandate. The present publication reproduces the agreed recommendations, as well as a complete set of papers prepared in substantive support of the Workshop, all of which represent an original contribution to this important cross-sectoral subject within UNCTAD’s trade and development objectives.
Rubens Ricupero
PREFACE
The Pre-UNCTAD X Expert Workshop convened in Geneva focused on the theme of trade, sustainable development and gender. The meeting was organized in line with the Fourth World Conference on Women, Beijing and the Platform of Action (1995), the UNCTAD IX Midrand Declaration (1996) and the agreed conclusions on gender mainstreaming (ECOSOC, 1997). Its objectives were to: (i) promote an exchange of experiences and views on policy-related issues concerning the interrelationship between trade, sustainable development and gender; (ii) identify modalities as to how such issues could be addressed in UNCTAD’s work, both by the secretariat and by the intergovernmental machinery and (iii) formulate policy recommendations and measures for action intended to promote discussion at the intergovernmental level in the context of preparation for UNCTAD X.1
Member States were invited to nominate experts to the Workshop, who participated in their personal capacities. Specialized agencies and intergovernmental bodies as well as non-governmental organizations which wished to participate as observers were also invited. The Expert Workshop attracted a wide geographical range of experts, covering all regions. Fifty-three experts came from thirty-nine States members of UNCTAD, and forty-three representatives of agencies and organizations of the United Nations system and of non-governmental organizations. An additional five resource persons provided substantive inputs to the general Workshop sessions and to the Working Groups.
The meeting’s programme of work was organized around three main areas of interest and concern: globalization and gender; trade-related issues and gender; and specific problems of LDCs and gender. The presentation of papers and related discussions were undertaken in four open general sessions with the main issues arising given further detailed consideration by three Working Groups. At the opening session it was agreed that the following expert participants would serve as its Bureau: (a) Chairperson: Ambassador Ruth D. Samonte-Limjuco; (Philippines); (b) Friends of the Chairperson: Ms. Elke Atzler (Austria); Mr. Carlos M. Correa (Argentina); Ms. Joan Dudik-Gayoso (United States of America); Ms. Diblété Helène Koné (Côte d’Ivoire); (c) Coordinators of Working Groups: Ms. Susan Joekes (United Kingdom); Mr. Debapriya Bhattacharya (Bangladesh) and Ms. Magdalena Kaihuzi (United Republic of Tanzania).
The collection of papers reproduced in this volume not only reflects the substantive issues reviewed in this Expert Workshop, but also captures the spirit and enthusiasm of the participants displayed during their working sessions. They were men and women drawn from a variety of countries and cultures: small and large, poor and rich, developing, developed and transitional economies. They came from governmental, non-governmental organizations and from private companies and academic institutions. Inevitably, the papers presented to the Workshop varied considerably in length and substance and in their style and presentation. Some of them are formal, sometimes technical or based on academic research, while others are more personal in tone, but they all succeed in identifying a substantial range of challenges to promote development and gender equality, in reflecting a variety of regional, country or sectoral experiences, and in proposing various constructive measures to achieve the empowerment and advancement of women. The resulting proposals for action to promote trade and development within a gender dimension were addressed to national governments, to UNCTAD and other international organizations and to the international community at large. The agreed conclusions and recommendations of the Expert Workshop are reproduced in Part V of this volume.
1 See UNCTAD (1999) Report on the Pre-UNCTAD X Expert Workshop on Trade, Sustainable Development and
The UNCTAD secretariat is grateful to Debapriya Bhattacharya, Executive Director, Centre for Policy Dialogue (Bangladesh), Ms. Janice Goodson Foerde, International Coalition for Development Action (ICDA), Belgium/KULU (Women and Development), Denmark, Ms. Susan Joekes, Fellow, Institute of Development Studies (IDS), University of Sussex (United Kingdom) Ms. Magdalena T. Kaihuzi, Administrator, National Women’s Council (BAWATA), United Republic of Tanzania and Ms. Padma Mallampally, Senior Project Expert on Foreign Direct Investment who acted as resource persons to the Expert Workshop, and provided precious substantive contributions to the meetings. Acknowledgements are also addressed to a number of individuals who served as anonymous peer reviewers of articles and whose comments contributed to improving the quality of the contents of this publication, as well as to the many friends of UNCTAD from international organizations, the United Nations system and non-governmental organizations who supported in various ways the event.
The overall coordination of preparations of the Expert Workshop and the present volume on Trade, Sustainable Development and Gender was undertaken by a team led by Gloria-Veronica Koch, UNCTAD’s Focal Point on Women. The present volume has benefited from the assistance and cooperation of a wide circle of persons and the contributions which make up this volume were submitted to UNCTAD on a voluntarily basis by authors from different backgrounds. In particular, various substantive contributions and advice as well as logistic support were received from UNCTAD staff members and external experts, which are herewith gratefully acknowledged. These include Erna Borneck, Sarah Combette-Molson, Robert Cook, Andrew Crosby, David Díaz-Benavides, Cathi Eisenring, Estela Erb-Paniagua, Anna Fälth, Fulvia Farinelli, Günter Fischer, Frederick Glover, Charles Gore, Khalil Hamdani, Michiko Hayashi, Gabrielle Koehler, Dieter Koenig, Willa Liburd, Christopher Macfarquhar, Daniel Martel, Mina Mashayekhi, Assad Omer, Diego Oyarzún, Chitra Radhakishun, Matfobhi Riba, Lorraine Ruffing, Masoumeh Sahami-Malmberg, Angela Thompson, Anna Tibaijuka, Susan Trachsel, Sophie Twarog, Francisco Vendrell, René Vossenaar, Aurelie von Wartensleben and Simonetta Zarrilli. Finally, we would like to express our thanks to the Government of Sweden for its contribution to the material production of this book through project INT 99 A42.
This volume was edited by Frederick Glover.
Carlos Fortín
OPENING STATEMENT BY THE CHAIRPERSON OF THE PRE-UNCTAD X EXPERT WORKSHOP ON TRADE, SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND GENDER
Ruth D. Samonte-Limjuco Ambassador
Special Assistant to the Undersecretary for International Economic Relations Department of Foreign Affairs
Manila, Philippines
The Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) in a resolution adopted by the 1997 summer Session, defined mainstreaming a gender perspective as the "process of assessing the implications for women and men of any planned actions, including legislation, policies or programme in any area and at all levels." It is a strategy for making women's as well as men's concerns and experiences an integral-dimension in the design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of policies and programmes in all political, economic and societal spheres so that women and men benefit equally and inequality is not perpetuated. The ultimate goal is to achieve gender equality.
Equality is the bedrock upon which are anchored our aspirations for social justice and human rights. The United Nations Charter in its Preamble reaffirms faith in the equal rights of men and women. The Vienna World Conference on Human Rights determined that the human rights of women and the girl child are an inalienable, integral and indivisible part of universal human rights, and that the full and equal participation of women in all aspects and levels of life, and the eradication of all forms of discrimination on grounds of sex are priority objectives of the international community. Inequality, therefore, violates the human rights of women.
But equality is not only about human rights. It is also the upliftment of the individual woman from a state of want and dependency to that of economic independence. It is empowerment through education: through participation and sharing in all spheres of life under terms that respect individual rights, as well as the inherent dignity and worth of the human person.
Over the past few years, there have been a number of international conferences which have addressed the issue of mainstreaming gender perspective into their programmes of work:
Agenda 21, which was crafted by the Rio Conference on Environment and Development, has as one of its objectives the formulation and implementation of clear governmental policies and national guidelines, strategies and plans for the achievement of equality in all aspects of society, including the promotion of women's literacy, education, training, nutrition and health and their participation in key decision-making positions and in management of the environment.
In Beijing during the Fourth World Conference on Women, participating Governments, recognizing that women's contributions and concerns were too often ignored in economic structures, committed themselves to promoting women's rights by ensuring a gender perspective in all their policies and programmes so that before decisions are taken, an analysis is first made of their effects on men and women, respectively. The Beijing Platform of Action calls for, among others, the promotion of women's economic independence through equal access to productive resources, opportunities and public services.
In fora other than those under the auspices of the United Nations, in particular the AsiaPacific Economic Cooperation (APEC), gender has been recognized as a crosscutting theme. The Joint Ministerial Statement that emanated from the APEC Ministerial Meeting on Women, which was held in Manila on 15-16 October 1998, reflecting the concern felt by the participants over the economic and financial crisis in the region, stressed that women have a crucial role to play in the successful planning, design and implementation of economic recovery programmes, not only as beneficiaries but also as decision makers.
The Meeting examined the impact of women on trade and investment and concluded that women's participation in these areas as workers, entrepreneurs and investors contributed to the achievement of sustained economic growth. However, it was pointed out that, as a result of gender biases in institutions, women workers and women in business were often less able to take advantage of the economic opportunities that may be created by trade and investment liberalization.
In the 1997 Declaration of the Association of South-East Asian Nations (ASEAN), the Member governments committed themselves to (a) the promotion and implementation of the "equitable and effective participation of women whenever possible in all fields and at various levels of the political, economic, social and cultural life of society at the national, regional and international levels"; (b) to "enable women in the region to undertake their important role as active agents and beneficiaries of national and regional development"; and (c) to "integrate into national plans the specific concerns of women and their roles as active agents in and beneficiaries of development, specifically considering their role as a productive force."
Now the question arises: what is the value added with respect to women's involvement in development? And while there may be a difference in the impact of development on women and men, the fact remains that:
(i) women are not only affected by economic forces as are men, but also in a different fashion;
(ii) women have much to contribute;
(iii) women can play a crucial role in an economy's development and with recovery from an economic crisis;
(iv) women have as much stake in development as men.
There are several critical areas of concern that must be addressed in order to advance the welfare of women. The mainstreaming of gender in sustainable development entails promotion of women's rights and welfare, economic access, sustainable human development, ecological cognizance and greater participation in economic and . political issues and decisions.
In the contemporary world, two phenomena - globalization and trade liberalization - have transformed the social, economic and political scenario. We have seen the rapid increase in women's participation in paid labour, in exports, and the growing visibility of their contributions to the economy. Through a gradual process of change, women are achieving economic importance, both as agents and beneficiaries of development.
Economic upheavals in certain areas, most recently in the South-East Asian region, have shown that women and men are affected by economic crisis differently due to various factors, not only of the impact of differing gender roles, but also by sex discrimination in the labour market, differences in access to productive resources and opportunities among others.
Policy makers must therefore be able effectively to mobilize responses to crises and to exploit emerging opportunities, as well as to find solutions to breaking down the barriers to women's full participation in development.
READERSHIP SURVEY ON
TRADE, SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND GENDER –
Papers prepared in support of the themes discussed at the Pre-UNCTAD X Expert Workshop on Trade, Sustainable Development and Gender, July 1999
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PART I
REINFORCING THE LINKS BETWEEN TRADE, SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND GENDER, AN OVERVIEW OF THE PAPERS OF THE EXPERT WORKSHOP
by
Frederick Glover
International Trade Development Consultant
Gloria-Veronica Koch
Departmental Focal Point on Women, UNCTAD and
Dieter Koenig
Competitiveness and Technological Capacity-Building Section Enterprise Development Branch
Division on Investment, Technology and Enterprise Development UNCTAD
I. ADDRESSING THE CORE ISSUES
Trade, sustainable development and gender are generally addressed in isolation from each other. Identifying the links between these central issues and how they could be mutually reinforced has been an overdue task for the United Nations and, given the broad implications of each of these topics, not an easy one. At the core of these issues is the ability of nations to effectively participate in international economic relations, recognizing that:
1. Trade is one of the driving forces of economic development for all countries ranging from the most advanced industrial societies to the least developed countries (LDCs);
2. Sustainable development is now a recognized precondition for ensuring a long-term perspective for the economy in balance with safeguarding the environment;
3. Gender issues are becoming increasingly important when addressing the factors influencing economic development of countries, as any national economy will benefit if the roles of men and women in society are at an equal level. Thus, gender analysis refers to “the socio-cultural construction of roles and relationships between men and women"2 rather than being only a “women’s issue”.
All three of these core issues also have to do with a major theme addressed by UNCTAD, namely innovation. The developments of enabling environments conducive to trade; best practice in using the natural environment instead of destroying it; and “good governance” in giving all citizens, independent of gender, a fair opportunity in their worklife are basic features indispensable to innovation and the transition of developing countries to modern societies.
The issue of gender should not blur the fact that, economically speaking, our major challenge is still the North-South divide. In other words, the gender perspective, and the needs, concerns and interests of women living in the industrialized countries and those living in the LDCs are not necessarily always compatible. Women in the North are as much part of the Northern agenda - the
2
interests of the industrialized countries - as are the men. The gender perspective is thus rather complex and cannot be grasped in simple terms. It involves “forces such as culture, tradition, politics, and need, varying from culture to culture and often from one social group to another within the same culture.”3 A simplified overview of differing interests and objectives according to a North-South divide may be visualized, on the basis of some salient examples, as follows:
Northern Agenda Southern Agenda
Examples related to:
Trade Establishing/maintaining worldwide
free trade
Gaining access to new markets Capacity-building for stronger participation in international trade
Sustainable development Ensuring global environmental stability
Ensuring development and avoiding further destruction of local
environments
Gender perspective Improving the role of women in the workplace
Providing access to basic education
Ensuring women’s rights to full participation in economic life
While this tabular presentation provides a generalization of the issues at stake when addressing an agenda linking trade, sustainable development and gender, the present volume of Workshop papers provides a rich variety of experiences, insights and cases with details underlying their importance and the need for effective action.
II. GENDER IN THE CONTEXT OF GLOBALIZATION AND TRADE
UNCTAD since its inception has frequently described the changes that have taken place in the international trading environment and how these have effected developing countries and the least-developed ones among them. Globalization, liberalization and democratization have been recurrent features on our agenda and that of the United Nations as a whole over the past decade. The developing countries have undergone wide-ranging changes during this period, opening their economies to trade and investment flows and ridding themselves of bureaucratic impediments to economic development. They have also taken the initiative to form new alliances among themselves, particularly, in terms of forming regional trading blocs. For example, UNCTAD fora have frequently listened to and learned from the experiences of ASEAN and MERCOSUR with the purpose of identifying effective models of how developing countries – and economies in transition – could participate as full partners in the international trading system and gainfully benefit from it. Furthermore, developed and developing countries have subscribed to the accords reached at the major United Nations mega-conferences of the 1990s, committing themselves to environmentally sound development, the advancement of women and social development. More countries increasingly recognize that these issues are all interrelated and that being equipped for participation in today’s world economy - and to innovate for this purpose - requires a commitment to sustainable development, gender equality and best practices.
From experience to date of the evolution of the new multilateral trading system and environment some results, viewed particularly from a gender perspective, can already be observed.
Many countries have seen dramatic increases both in export manufacturing capacity and in the number and share of women in the manufacturing labour force: the Dominican Republic, Indonesia,
3
Republic of Korea, Mauritius, the Philippines, Taiwan Province of China, and Tunisia are examples. The stronger the concentration in exports on labour-intensive operations, such as production of clothing, semiconductors, shoes, sports goods, and toys, the higher the proportion of women workers tends to be. Even within these product categories, there is some evidence that higher proportions of women are employed on export production and/or by foreign-owned firms producing for exports than in production for local markets. Other customized more skill intensive services such as software design, computer programming and financial services (banking and insurance) are increasingly relocated to developing countries and employ relatively high proportions of women in the workforce, including at the higher-paid levels.
It is clear that in some countries employment in new forms of services are echoing the gender impact of expansion in the export sector of manufacturing, providing relatively well-paid jobs for women. In some situations, the small-scale sector has developed export capacity (shoes in some regions of Brazil as in gloves and shoes in southern Italy, and surgical instruments in Sialkot, Pakistan). In some other cases, the informal sector contributes to exports in its own right. In most countries, however, modern sector factories constitutes the leading sector in exports, which regularly subcontracts some parts of supply and delegates some processes of production (normally assembly, finishing and packaging) to smaller enterprises in the locality - workshops, family-based enterprises or home-based workers.
III. GENDER IN THE CONTEXT OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
In 1997, the Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD) noted that “women across class, race, ethnicity and location have come to serve as catalysts for environmental and democratic activism.”4 By that time women had already succeeded in gaining a “Principle” in the Rio Declaration5 and a Chapter in Agenda 21, “Global action for women towards sustainable and equitable development”.6 This was dedicated to their concerns as well as more than 170 references to them mainstreamed throughout Agenda 21, as women are represented in and reflect all nine major groups defined in the Agenda. Chapter 24 of the Agenda explicitly called upon governments to consider developing strategies by the year 2000 to eliminate constitutional, legal, administrative, cultural, behavioural, social and economic obstacles to the full participation of women in sustainable development and public life and to promote measures to give women better access to credit. In preparation for the “Rio+5" meeting of the CSD in 1997, the Commission found that “ women ensured that their holistic gender analysis infused the process and documents of other international conferences (...)”.7 Moreover, a number of practical initiatives have been initiated by women since the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in Rio, 1992, and the Fourth United Nations Conference for the Advancement of Women in Beijing. Thus, “Local Agenda 21" efforts are successfully under way around the world, and they have helped to strengthen mechanisms to integrate women in decision-making processes and to alter unsustainable production and consumption patterns.8
4
Commission on Sustainable Development, 5th session (8-25 April 1997), Agenda item 4, Preparations for the Special Session of the General Assembly for the Purpose of an overall Review and Appraisal of the Implementation of Agenda 21, Summary report of the dialogue with women (14 April 1997).
5
Principle 20 of the Rio Declaration reads: “women have a vital role in environmental management and development. Their full participation is therefore essential to achieve sustainable development”.
6
Chapter 24 of the Agenda.
7 CSD, op.cit.
8 See, for example, some of the case studies published by the Division for Sustainable Development: U.N. Department
According to the IDRC, “sustainable and equitable development” means that we must address the great disparities in the quality of life. While women throughout the world are not a homogenous group as noted above, they are often among the vulnerable and do not have the same opportunities as men. The Rio and Beijing Conferences notwithstanding, women continue to comprise the majority of the poor, the landless and the under-fed.”9 Obstacles with regard to commerce and trade remain, for example, lack of credit for women prevents them from achieving financial independence, and so do barriers to ownership. Equal access to education also remains a serious concern. Thus, the Commission on Sustainable Development found that:
“Women are key to achieving sustainable development. Thus, the inequities and prejudices that confront women also hinder general progress towards sustainability. Specific obstacles concern lack of representation and credit, as well as poverty, trade and debt-related issues”.
Challenges that remain with regard to the economic role of women include inter alia: (i) The need to ensure that any negotiations on the proposed multilateral agreement on investment will equally address the rights and responsibilities of corporations in sustainable development processes; (ii) The need to establish a mechanism within the Commission to monitor and guide the actions of the World Trade Organization (WTO); (iii) To affirm and pledge to reach the Micro-credit Summit (Washington, D.C., February 1997) goal of raising US$ 21.7 billion to ensure that 100 million of the world's poorest women and their families receive credit for self-employment by the year 2005; (iv) To remove legislative, policy, administrative and customary barriers to achieving women's equal rights to access natural resources, including access to and control over land (and other forms of property), credit, inheritance, information, and new technology.
Already, in its “Global Action For Women Towards Sustainable And Equitable Development”, Agenda 21 urged governments to implement measures to review policies and establish plans to increase the proportion of women involved as decision makers, planners, managers, scientists and technical advisers in the design, development and implementation of policies and programmes for sustainable development. It also called for measures to eliminate illiteracy among females and to expand the enrolment of women in educational institutions. In terms of a research agenda underlying such measures. Agenda 21 stated that research and data were needed to study the impact of structural adjustment programmes on women.
At its 52nd session the United Nations General Assembly addressed three issues relevant to the economic role of women: (i) Sustainable development and international economic cooperation: women in development; (ii) Effective mobilization and integration of women in development; (iii) Mainstreaming the gender perspective into economic policies: a preliminary framework for action. Within this context the General Assembly debate identified a wide range of economic issues in order to assess their gender implications. Among these were poverty alleviation policies, human capital development and growth, fiscal policies, trade liberalization and concerns regarding the unpaid sector of the economy. The General Assembly concluded that all policies including economic policies should contribute to the goal of gender equality and that women’s advancement should not be a marginal exercise of micro-level projects.10
The General Assembly, in its discussion also found that liberalization of trade was one of the driving forces behind the increased “feminization” of the labour force; this was changing the public
9
Commission on Sustainable Development, 5th session, 8-25 April 1997, agenda item 4, Preparations for the special session of the General Assembly for the purpose of an overall review and appraisal of the implementation of Agenda 21 - Summary report of the dialogue session with women (14 April 1997).
10 United Nations General Assembly, Fifty-second session, item 999 (g) of the provisional agenda, 11 September 1997,
perceptions of women. In many regions, women's participation in remunerated work in the formal and non-formal labour market has increased significantly and changed during the past decade. While women continue to work in agriculture and fisheries, they have also become increasingly involved in micro-, small and medium-sized enterprises and, in some cases, have become more dominant in the expanding informal sector. However, the discussion also focused on policies that shift production in the agricultural sector from subsistence to market production, and from domestic to export markets, are found that these were constrained by gender-based inequalities. For instance, in many parts of the world, cash crops are considered the domain of men and subsistence crops the domain of women. Women’s opportunities to produce cash crops for the market and to respond to export-led strategies can therefore be hampered by their lack of control over resources.11
IV. THE ROLE OF UNCTAD
There are considerable differences in women's and men's access to and opportunities for exerting power over economic structures in their respective societies. In most parts of the world, women are poorly represented in economic decision-making, including the formulation of financial, monetary, commercial and other economic policies, as well as tax systems and rules/practices governing the setting of wages and salaries. Since it is often within the framework of such policies that individual men and women make their decisions, the actual development of these economic structures and policies has a direct impact on women's and men's access to economic resources, their economic power and consequently the extent of equality between them at the individual and family levels, as well as in society as a whole.
Men and women are each in their own way effected by policies and regulations, trade, investments and financial flows, etc. In order to increase efficiency of our global economy at different levels, we need to consider the gender aspect. During recent years, UNCTAD has undertaken research on the participation of women entrepreneurs in the LDC economies. The major findings of this research are that:
1. Few policy initiatives focus specifically on the development of women’s SMEs. In the policies and projects on private sector and SME development, a component on women’s enterprises is usually included, but there is no evidence to date of impact and results.
2. Women’s enterprises are the smallest among SMEs in LDCs. Their enterprises are concentrated in a limited number of sectors (textile and garment manufacturing and sales, food and beverages production and sales and other retail trading and services). Women’s enterprises produce generally identical goods, have limited access to production technology and their market access is restricted. Very few women entrepreneurs succeed in entering international markets.
3. The legal environment continues to impact negatively on the enhancement of women’s entrepreneurship. Conflicts between customary practice and state law obstruct full and effective participation of women in the enterprise sector. Major obstacles identified were access to capital, land, production inputs, business premises, information on business opportunities, networking and business and management training. Women entrepreneurs often lack confidence, also due to the absence of role models and continue to suffer gender biases.
UNCTAD has worked over the past years at supporting developing countries to design and develop their own indigenous capacities to participate effectively in the globalization process. Thus
11
UNCTAD has frequently made policy recommendations and assisted countries in enhancing the role of trade as a tool for economic development. Member States of UNCTAD have more recently requested to revisit these activities with a gender perspective. At the session of the Working Party on Programme and Budget (Geneva, 25-29 January 1999), Member States representatives, recalling UNCTAD IX, requested that, in the work planned for the biennium 2000-2001, the gender dimension of development be included in UNCTAD’s five subprogrammes as a cross-sectoral issue. In the context of the preparations leading to UNCTAD X, and as a first step, UNCTAD organized, in July 1999 the Expert Workshop on Trade, Sustainable Development and Gender. This publication is based on the contributions to and results of this Workshop.
V. AN OVERVIEW OF THE PUBLICATION
In accordance with the objectives of the Workshop, the specific role of this publication is to reflect the exchange of experiences and views on policy-related aspects of trade, sustainable development and gender held at the meeting, including proposals on how the interrelationship between trade, sustainable development and gender could be addressed in UNCTAD’s present and future work. The exchanges at the meeting and in the papers presented included a variety of policy recommendations and measures for action intended to promote further discussion at the intergovernmental level in the context of preparations for UNCTAD X to be held in Bangkok, Thailand, February 2000.
The Expert Workshop concentrated on a select number of critical areas for trade, sustainable development and gender, as follows: (i) specific aspects related to the globalization process, such as those affecting trade, foreign investment, income distribution and policy-making; (ii) relevant aspects concerning multilateral trade agreements, in particular those aspects that curb support measures addressed to defined social groups; (iii) issues in the field of commodities concerning both producers and traders; (iv) selected aspects concerning science and technology for development; (v) investment aspects, such as those concerning entrepreneurs and the barriers they face and those having an impact on employment patterns; (vi) selected issues related to enterprise development in general, including micro-economic aspects that may offer opportunities of redressing gender imbalances; and (vii) specific problems affecting the least developed countries.
In dealing with such broad issues, the UNCTAD team preparing the Expert Workshop addressed a number of questions to participants inviting them to consider these during their deliberations. The following are examples of the questions formulated for guiding the discussions at the meeting:
1. What is the interrelationship between trade, sustainable development and gender in terms of specific issues to be addressed by the international community?
2. How could this relationship be addressed in UNCTAD’s intergovernmental work?
3. What contribution could the consideration of gender issues make to achieve sustainable development?
4. How could gender issues be effectively reflected in multilateral trade agreements and multilateral environmental agreements?
5. Which policies and measures could promote discussion at the intergovernmental level in the context of preparations for UNCTAD X and its main theme of “globalization”?
6. Which specific policy considerations need to be made for LDC’s?
to financial resources; (iv) trade international and marketing; (v) science and technology (information/application), and enterprise development?
The issue could be raised as to whether the current global arrangements, such as those in the area of trade, are supportive of greater participation of women in development, in the marketplace and in the process of globalization, both as agents and beneficiaries. Or, if not, what special measures could be taken that would promote their interest? The participating experts in the Workshop considered many of the issues listed above in their discussions, and their agreed conclusions and recommendations are reproduced in Part V of this volume.
While the scope and content of several papers cut across a number of contemporary economic development themes in reviewing gender issues, the papers presented in this volume have been grouped according to the following: (i) Part I: Forging links between trade, sustainable development and gender; (ii) Part II: Globalization and gender; (iii) Part III: Trade-related aspects and gender, and (iv) Part IV: Specific problems of LDCs and gender. Apart from some papers prepared by individual UNCTAD secretariat staff, most of them have been written by experts from developing countries and from countries with economies in transition. The publication also includes papers submitted by experts from developed countries and from international organizations. UNCTAD wishes to express its appreciation for all of these valuable contributions, and also for the specialist papers prepared by the resource persons who participated in the Workshop.
With respect to the specific contributions, in Part I, the paper by S. Joekes presents research on the gender dimension of international trade considering, in particular, the developmental aspect of trade expansion. Her contribution revisits a critique of trade which argued that demand-based market forces cause structural limitations on the abilities of low-income countries to benefit from on international trade as a source of growth and development. Her paper suggests several substantive areas of work that would enable UNCTAD to move forward in realizing its commitment to gender mainstreaming.
J. Goodson Foerde’s paper examines the current neoliberal development model and describes the links between economic growth, trade, sustainable development and gender. It provides an overview of current trends in NGO activity on these issues, including a review of current literature and suggested readings. The contribution by P. Bifani-Richard examines current development orientations with regard to the Workshop themes; the gender effects of the internationalization of production, and the nexus between globalization and its impact on gender and between trade and gender. It finally presents some conclusions on what could be done to merge the results of relevant research with decision-making.
The paper prepared by D. H. Koné describes Côte d’Ivoire’s responses to gender aspects of trade and sustainable development. It discusses the country’s trade policy and trade performance, the role of Ivoirian women in commercial activities and current perspectives for female entrepreneurs within the new policies and programmes established by the Government. R. D. SamonteLimjuco presents in her paper the example of how a developing country the Philippines -has been consistently implementing the recommendations for gender mainstreaming resulting from different United Nations fora, more recently, the Beijing Platform of Action and regional agreements of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) and of the Association of Southeast Asian nations (ASEAN).
strengthening of UNCTAD’s capacity to mainstream gender in its policy research and technical cooperation work.
In Part II, on globalization and gender aspects, the paper by P. Mallampally provides a background to the links between globalization, international investment and gender and examines some gender aspects related to foreign direct investment in developing countries. The paper concludes with an analysis of the crucial role for governments in these areas. In her contribution, J. Ghosh outlines the general economic background on which much of the discussion on gender and sustainable development is taking place, emphasizing an Asian perspective. This paper is followed by a contribution by M. Carr and M. A. Chen, which takes up main issues of an action-research agenda for home-based workers, that developed from original efforts and networking undertaken by the Self-Employed Women’s Association (SEWA) in India.
The paper by E. Ruminska-Zimny provides an analysis of the post-1989 opening of economies in Eastern Europe and in the former Soviet Union with regard to globalization and gender. Her paper highlights the fact that becoming part of the global economy has differed greatly from country to country in transition economies, and that it has also differed by gender. M.A. Knothe’s contribution focuses on some aspects of economic and social change in Poland, which have had the most significant impact on the situation of women. It draws information from a case study of a non-governmental organization supporting women in solving problems resulting from the transition period. The paper by R. Balniene reviews the situation of women in Lithuania with particular attention to their participation in the public and private sectors. To achieve sustainable economic growth such participation should be exploited to a much greater extent; the paper accordingly presents some recommendations for action.
A contribution by C. Ortíz briefly describes how the private sector and employers’ organizations should act together in an emerging economy, such as Chile, in order to bring about social and cultural changes which could improve the participation of women in formal employment. The note by Z. Alanes Bravo describes the impact of structural adjustment policies on the liberalization of markets in Bolivia, and their impact on the most vulnerable sectors, including women. Capital, technical know-how and managerial skills are lacking. Priority is being given, however, to vocational training to meet the demands of the informal sector where women represent 60 per cent of the workforce.
In Part III, on trade-related aspects and gender, a first paper by M. I. Terra presents the case of Uruguay against the background of the dramatic opening to international trade initiated in the 1990s. The country’s women seem to have been favoured by the process. Some empirical papers are reviewed, leading to the conclusion that a definitive causal relationship can not yet be established.
The paper by S. Barrientos defines the notion of “ethical trade”, explores “non-traditional” horticultural exports, including examples from South Africa and Chile, and reports on specific research projects on gender and codes of conduct. It finally argues that while trade liberalization has had both negative and positive effects, it has opened new opportunities.
liberalization and globalization. It also examines the environmental aspects of production and likely future mitigation costs – therefore dealing with important trade and sustainable development issues.
M. Kaosa-ard in her paper examines trade and sustainable development issues of Thailand’s fisheries sector, and identifies the particular contribution made by women. She identifies various problems and makes a number of recommendations to deal with them. A note by A. Taporaie analyses the gender and renewable resources nexus in the South Pacific. It identifies gender-based discrimination against women and suggests that globalization may increase the productive value for women’s contribution and provide them with the means to achieve societal standing, both individually and collectively.
In an attempt to relate the discussions on trade, sustainable development and gender in the forestry sector, the paper by S. Twarog outlines the goods and services derived from forests, examines the current situation with regard to international trade in forest products, looks at deforestation and possible linkages with trade in forest products, and discusses sustainable forest management, and women as the main forest-user group in local communities. The paper finally identifies areas for future research.
The contribution by B. P. Del Rosario analyses efforts and lessons learned in the Philippine agriculture and forestry sector with respect to mainstreaming gender concerns; discusses in detail the role of women, and finally presents a set of policy recommendations and measures for action, particularly with regard to training, advocacy and capability-building activities.
The note by S. M. Brisighello sets forth the need to promote an increased participation of women in Brazil’s cooperative research and development projects, which facilitate cooperation between research institutions and enterprises, sharing the high costs and risks of research and development and questions related to market behaviour and size. G. Koehler identifies gender issues for research in the areas of agriculture and commodities which include matters with regard to the Uruguay Round Agreements (URAs), structural adjustment measures, changing market structures and supply channels and commodity price declines.
The paper by C. Eisenring examines international trade in health services, setting out the case of the nursing profession. Trade in health services offers countries the opportunity to enhance their health systems through the generation of additional financial resources and the acquirement of new medical skills and methods. The globalization and structural adjustment policies, it is submitted, intensify the movements of nurses, which is an important issue for the profession itself, but also for governments, employers, policy makers, the public in general, and other provider groups.
A South African perspective is presented by N. Magau, in a paper which highlights challenges, progress achieved and emergent solutions in charting out new paths toward integrating women into the economy and thus promoting trade and sustainable development. The contribution by M. Riba presents the Technology for Women in Business (TWIB) programme in South Africa, conceived as a network broker for technology support services. TWIB promotes strategic cooperation amongst women small, micro and medium sized enterprises (SMMEs) and between SMMEs and large business, parastatals and research and technology organizations.
L. Khaïat analyses the advancement of gender equality and female entrepreneurial activity in Tunisia, then, barriers and impediments to female entrepreneurship from an African perspective and existing obstacles to the development and advancement of women-owned SMEs. It finally proposes policy and programme recommendations to advance such SMEs in Africa.
The access to financial services for women entrepreneurs is examined in the paper by M. Sahami-Malmberg. The author observes that recent experiences with micro-credit have proven that women are not only good borrowers, but also good entrepreneurs. Access to productive resources is critical to enhancing women’s economic choices. One important policy challenge is how to ensure that low-income women have access to financial services from the formal financial system, and in this context, what policies have to be adopted with regard to interest rates and taxes.
L. Ruffing and G. Fischer present an overview of the work done by UNCTAD during the past years towards the promotion of enterprise development. The paper highlights specific challenges and impediments that are faced by women entrepreneurs and provides an outlook of future work that needs to be done in this area. S. Meitzel briefly reviews the activities of the International Trade Center (ITC) with regard to gender and trade development. On the basis of lessons learned from ITC experience in this area, international experts are to now review, together with stakeholders such as business women from developing and transition economies, representatives from donor governments and international organizations, further related in ITC work
Part IV opens with the paper by M. Kaihuzi identifying the special problems faced by least developed countries (LDCs) in a globalizing world economy. The paper describes setting out the marginalization which characterizes the position of LDCs in an intensified global economy. It then analyses the situation of women in these countries, situation constituting an ultimate development challenge. The author then suggests what is to be done for LDC women to effectively participate in trade, and discusses a strategy for the sustainable development of LDCs with a gender balance. This includes policies and measures to address internal, external and exogenous constraints. The role of UNCTAD in support of such a strategy is discussed, and main conclusions drawn from the analysis undertaken.
The following paper by N. Haile describes the situation in Ethiopia with regard to major trade and gender issues. Following an analysis of these issues, in particular of the impact of globalization on women workers, the author presents detailed recommendations on how to promote the overall development of women in Ethiopia’s trade activities in order to attain sustainable development.
S. Kitakule, in her paper on women and trade in Uganda, presents an analysis of internal and external trade, including a discussion of regional and international trade agreements and of trade and industrial policy. She then discusses related enterprise development and women and identifies a number of constraints on women traders and investors. The author concludes with a number of recommendations for promoting the participation of women in Uganda.
The contribution by N. T. Dendere is focused on SMEs and cross-border informal trade. In examining the constraints impeding the development of SMEs in Zimbabwe , she advocates the need for an SME policy and for necessary financial and information resources. Special reference is made to training needs and improvements in quality production and marketing. She also highlights the need to provide infrastructure and funds for the improvement of cross-border trade which is dominated by women.
the current resource use and development sustainability in the country with special reference to gender aspects of the overall economy and of the pattern and structure of Tanzania’s trade. Following a sectoral analysis focused on gender, the author draws policy implications and recommendations focused on the harmonization of environmental management, on strategies for improving gender representation in Tanzania’s economy and for improving the knowledge and training of women.
M. Marealle, in a highly personal paper, presents a business women’s perspective on issues related to the Workshop’s themes. The paper proposes a number of measures to be undertaken by UNCTAD in order to facilitate the efforts of women at all levels to be assisted in raising their production and incomes.
Although mainly focused on Zambia, the paper by P. Mlewa also extends her review to Southern Africa and argues in favour of developing appropriate strategies with respect to finance, trade, and the use of technology and human resources. The author stresses the need to make full use of women’s labour and skills in order to achieve sustainable development.
The case of export-oriented shrimp culture in Bangladesh constitutes the core of the paper by R. Rahman. Following an analysis of the evolution of the exports of shrimps, the author outlines specific policy concerns and choices with regard to related sustainable development and social welfare aspects. The author recommends that all stakeholders be closely involved in the conceptualization, design and implementation of a comprehensive policy for an environmentally sustainable shrimp sector in Bangladesh.
A. Fälth examines the impact of globalization on the development efforts of LDCs and concludes that there is a need for these countries to diversify their economies. In this respect she argues in favour of tourism as one possible tool to do this. She examines the advantages and disadvantages of tourism development drawing upon a number of case studies, and in the process reviews the relevant gender aspects. She recommends that LDCs wishing to embrace tourism as a means of diversification should develop niche marketing, and the exploration of the country’s comparative advantage in order to reach sustainable development, involving both men and women in the process.
A Nepalese view of the Workshop themes is presented by M. K. Agrawal. Following a review of development policies, resources and sectoral developments, he strongly emphasizes the country’s need for substantial foreign investment to raise employment and income, in order to mitigate the widespread poverty. He examines gender in relation to economic development and recommends improvements in the training of women, facilitation of bank loans/credit to women entrepreneurs and improved government resource allocation to women’s development programmes, which to date have not proved effective.
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