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Inequidad de género en la participación oral: explorando los discursos de los estudiantes de octavo en un aula de lengua extranjera

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(1)Running head: GENDER INEQUALITY IN ORAL PARTICIPATION: EXPLORING EIGHTH GRADERS’ DISCOURSES IN AN EFL CLASSROOM 1. Gender inequality in oral participation: exploring eight graders’ discourses in an EFL classroom. Lorena Cristina Muñoz Caicedo 20141062013. Universidad Distrital Francisco José de Caldas School of Sciences and Education Masters in Applied Linguistics to TEFL Bogotá, Colombia. 2016.

(2) GENDER INEQUALITY IN ORAL PARTICIPATION: EXPLORING EIGHTH GRADERS’ DISCOURSES IN AN EFL CLASSROOM. 2. Gender inequality in oral participation: exploring eight graders’ discourses in an EFL classroom. Lorena Cristina Muñoz Caicedo Thesis director: Harold Castañeda Peña (PhD). “A thesis submitted as a requirement to obtaining the degree of M. A. in Applied Linguistics to the Teaching of English”. Universidad Distrital Francisco José de Caldas School of Science and Education M.A. in Applied Linguistics Bogotá, Colombia 2017.

(3) GENDER INEQUALITY IN ORAL PARTICIPATION: EXPLORING EIGHTH GRADERS’ DISCOURSES IN AN EFL CLASSROOM. Note of acceptance. Thesis Director ___________________________________ Name: Harold Castañeda Peña (PhD). Jury ____________________________________________ Name: Edgar Aguirre (MA). Jury ____________________________________________ Name: Diego Ubaque Casallas (MA). 3.

(4) GENDER INEQUALITY IN ORAL PARTICIPATION: EXPLORING EIGHTH GRADERS’ DISCOURSES IN AN EFL CLASSROOM. Acuerdo 19 de 1988 del Consejo Superior Universitario Artículo 177: “La Universidad Distrital Francisco José de Caldas no será responsable por las ideas expuestas en esta tesis”.. 4.

(5) GENDER INEQUALITY IN ORAL PARTICIPATION: EXPLORING EIGHTH GRADERS’ DISCOURSES IN AN EFL CLASSROOM. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. All my thanks to God… Who put in my heart this dream to be a Master and to contribute in a small scale to society. I also want to thank my advisor Harold Castañeda for guiding me through all this process, because he believed in my abilities and helped me in every moment, motivating me to do things better. God bless you, teacher. To the Master’s program professors who planted a seed of knowledge to carry out this research process. And finally, thanks to Liceo Manantial de Vida Eterna, the institution that allowed me to inquire and also provided me with all the sources that I needed.. 5.

(6) GENDER INEQUALITY IN ORAL PARTICIPATION: EXPLORING EIGHTH GRADERS’ DISCOURSES IN AN EFL CLASSROOM. 6. DEDICATION. I dedicate my work to… My wonderful God, who gave me strength to reach this goal. My husband, who was by my side during this whole journey, supporting me without conditions and encouraging me in difficult moments. My parents and brother, who were praying for me all the time and patiently gave me wise advice. And to my colleagues, who supported me this year. Thanks Karen, Grace and Anguie..

(7) GENDER INEQUALITY IN ORAL PARTICIPATION: EXPLORING EIGHTH GRADERS’ DISCOURSES IN AN EFL CLASSROOM. 7. Abstract This qualitative descriptive research study aims to describe gender inequalities discourses present in an EFL classroom when eighth graders develop activities about ethics and values topics, analyzing their social and linguistic relation with L2 learning. I go deep in the discourses of a Christian school in Bogotá, Colombia through different oral activities like role plays, debates, and improvisation exercises, among others, in order to identify class dynamics generated around discourses. Data collected are analyzed from two frames: grounded theory and feminist post-structuralist discourse analysis. The analysis seeks to interconnect findings with topics like gender, competing, power, resistance, and positioning, which are woven around language and can affect the learning process. This research demonstrates that gender inequality discourses are implicitly present in the daily practices, which are given when they come in contact or they are produced by learning properly; hence, the importance of being aware about their existence to create strategies that promote participation environments where the students can express ideas and construct as linguistic as social knowledge from other’s opinions. Key concepts: Gender, discourses, inequalities, learning, language..

(8) GENDER INEQUALITY IN ORAL PARTICIPATION: EXPLORING EIGHTH GRADERS’ DISCOURSES IN AN EFL CLASSROOM. 8. TABLE OF CONTENTS. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS…………………………………………………………... 5 DEDICATION……………………………………………………………………….... 6. Abstract…………………………………………………………...………………….... 7. CHAPTER STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM……………..……………..…... I Contextualization………………………………………………………. Needs Analysis…………………………………………………………. Statement of the problem………………………………………………. Research Question……………………………………………………... Research Objectives……………………………………………………. Justification……………………………………………………………... 11 12 14 26 26 26 27. II. LITERATURE REVIEW……………………………………… ...… Gender…………………………………………………………………. Discourses………………………………………………………… …... Discourse of approval………………………………………………... Discourse of gender differentiation………………………………...... Competing discourses………………………………………………... EFL activities ………………………………………………………….. Socio-cultural-theory………………………………………………… Oral literacies………………………………………………………… Feminist poststructuralist theory…...…………………………….…... 29 30 33 34 34 35 38 39 40 42. III. RESEARCH DESIGN………………………………………………. Approach…………………………………………………………..….. Type of study……………………………………………………..…... Depth level………………………………………………………...…... Context…………………………………………………………..……. Instruments piloting……………………………………………...……. Transcriptions……………………………………………………...… Interview………………………………………………………..…… Field notes……………………………………………………..……. Ethical Issues…………………………………………………………... 45 45 48 49 50 54 54 56 57 58.

(9) GENDER INEQUALITY IN ORAL PARTICIPATION: EXPLORING EIGHTH GRADERS’ DISCOURSES IN AN EFL CLASSROOM. 9. IV. INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN……………………………………...… Curricular platform…………………………………………………….. Vision of curriculum…………………………………………………. Vision of language…………………………………………………… Vision of learning……………………………………………………. Vision of classroom………………………………………………….. Pedagogical intervention…………………………………………….… General pedagogical goals……………………………………........... General pedagogical objectives……………………………………… Timetable……………………………………………………….......... Activities chart……………………………………………………..…. 60 63 65 66 66 67 68 68 69 69 69. V. DATA ANALYSIS……………………………………………………. Framework of Analysis………………………………………………… Grounded theory……………………………………………………….. FPDA…………………………………………………………………… Triangulation…………………………………………………………… Data analysis…………………………………………………………….. 74 74 75 76 78 79. VI. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS ………………………….... 124. VII. RECOMMENDATIONS……………………………………………... 133 Limitations of the study………………………………………………… 134 Questions for further research……………………..…………………… 135. REFERENCES……………………………………………………………………… 136. Lists of tables Table 1 Activities chart Unit 1……………………………………….………………. Table 2 Activities chart Unit 2……………………………………………………….. Table 3 Activities chart Unit 3……………………………………………………….. Table 4 Activities chart Unit 4……………………………………………………….. Table 5 Open codes………………………………………………………………….... 70 71 72 73 143. Lists of figures Figure 1 Class opinions about girls’ class participation……………………………… Figure 2 Class opinions about boys’ class participation……………………………... Figure 3 Class opinions about girls’ attention to others……………………………… Figure 4 Class opinions about boys’ attention to others…………………………….... 18 19 20 20.

(10) GENDER INEQUALITY IN ORAL PARTICIPATION: EXPLORING EIGHTH GRADERS’ DISCOURSES IN AN EFL CLASSROOM. Figure 5 Data analysis frameworks…………………………………………...……… Figure 6 The bonfire metaphor………………………………………………………. Figure 7 Gender differentiation discourse……………………………………………. Figure 8 Approval and disapproval discourse………………………………………... Figure 9 Competing discourse………………………………………………………... 10. 75 80 80 89 108. Annexes Annex 1 Consent form to participate in the research process………………………... 142 Annex 2. Table 2 Open codes………………………………………………………... 143 Annex 3. Analytical model……………………………………………………...…… 144.

(11) GENDER INEQUALITY IN ORAL PARTICIPATION: EXPLORING EIGHTH GRADERS’ DISCOURSES IN AN EFL CLASSROOM. 11. CHAPTER I Statement of the problem Introduction Although competing discourses in oral activities have been problematized (Baxter, 2003), most of those research studies tend to focus only on the male dominance exercise; in that sense overlooking that female discourses can also be competing even to the point of supporting or hindering L2 learning (Castañeda-Peña, 2010; Castañeda, 2012; Rojas, 2012). This paper describes how discourses, especially the gender ones, take an important place within a local educational setting and how, at the same time, these discourses interact with other factors like identity construction, gender and dominant practices in L2 oral classroom participation. In order to support the idea of a researchable problem, this chapter is presented in four sections. Firstly, I will introduce the context of my teaching, which is guided by principles of the Christian church and have therefore moved me into searching about equality from a gendered, but ‘not normalized’ perspective. This means that equality goes for both parties: girls and boys. Secondly, I will describe how the results of a survey conducted with the participants were hardly enough to identify the researchable problem, even though there is constant inequity between boys and girls in terms of classroom participation. Therefore, I decided to conduct classroom observations more systematically and I recorded, transcribed, and carried out a first analysis of interactions in different types of activities to find out there is a potential challenge for creating conditions that allow for balanced classroom participation. Thirdly, I briefly explored related problems in the specialised literature where I found that the gender perspective has inclined to admit that girls are in disadvantageous.

(12) GENDER INEQUALITY IN ORAL PARTICIPATION: EXPLORING EIGHTH GRADERS’ DISCOURSES IN AN EFL CLASSROOM. 12. positions in relation to classroom participation; this is an issue that I have identified in my classroom observations, but in a different direction: it is girls who dominate boys. Finally, I posed my research question and objectives in relation to the problem facts identified in the sections I have described and a justification for this study is also presented. Contextualization This research was carried out in a private high school in Bogotá. This educational institution has 978 students, 521 girls and 457 boys; distributed in three levels: pre-school, primary and secondary. The school has a Christian approach. For that reason, the curriculum is based on the Bible and the following principles: . Individuality: The idea underlying this principle is that each person is unique; he/she has a purpose determined by God.. . Self-government: This principle is based on the idea that ‘I can govern myself when I allow Jesus to govern my life’.. . Stewardship: This principle is underpinned by the postulate that says that ‘I can manage my properties taking into account the consequences’.. . Christian character: This principle has its roots in the idea that ‘When I have a Christian character, I can coexist with the other’. This whole curricular approach is named in Spanish AMO (Apacienta Mis Ovejas),. an acronym that in English would mean: I LOVE with the Christian idea of ‘Feed my Sheep’. This ontological and religious conception at the foundational level of the curriculum arises from the analysis of John 21:17 that states: “Le dijo la tercera vez: Simón hijo de Jonás, ¿me amas? Se entristeció Pedro de que le dijese por tercera vez: ¿Me amas?, y le dijo: Señor, tú sabes todas las cosas; tú.

(13) GENDER INEQUALITY IN ORAL PARTICIPATION: EXPLORING EIGHTH GRADERS’ DISCOURSES IN AN EFL CLASSROOM. 13. sabes que te amo. Jesús le dijo: Apacienta mis ovejas.”. English version The third time he said to him, “Simon son of John, do you love me?” Peter was hurt because Jesus asked him the third time, “Do you love me?” He said, “Lord, you know all things; you know that I love you.” Jesus said, “Feed my sheep”. (Nueva Versión Internacional - NVI) What this biblical message seems to encapsulate is for Peter to embrace the challenge to feed ‘My Sheep’ in a public affirmation. By extending this message, it is clear in the educational context that the sheep are the students who must be protected, addressed and educated with love and wisdom. This is why in all classes, regardless of the specific school subject, readings, workshops, presentations, and other activities are taught in relation to human values (e.g. respect, integrity, empathy, etc.). Thus, not only are students being formed in the academic area, but they are also oriented in ethics and behavior areas. The students’ profile is addressed taking into account in Spanish the following Biblical quote: “Y Jesús crecía en sabiduría y en estatura, y en gracia para con Dios y los hombres” (NVI) (“And Jesus grew in wisdom and stature, and in favor with God and man”) (Luke 2:52, NVI) In this context, ‘wisdom’ is conceived as the set of knowledge and experiences formed during students’ learning processes. Additionally, ‘stature’ is represented in the biological, artistical, cultural and sportive development of the students. The last element ‘favor’ or grace, (which connects with the present research process) is related to communion with God and the respect, tolerance and valuing of others. This biblical verse is pivotal because it presents, from a general view, how the educational institution projects students’ academic stage into their future life as citizens and community members..

(14) GENDER INEQUALITY IN ORAL PARTICIPATION: EXPLORING EIGHTH GRADERS’ DISCOURSES IN AN EFL CLASSROOM. 14. The institution offers two majors: academic major and emphasis in English major. In the first case, students have four-hour-English classes per week. In the second case, learners take ten school subjects taught in English and the rest of them in Spanish. The emphasis in the English major is certified by the International Christian Accrediting Association (ICAA), a voluntary accrediting association of Christian schools. This research included seventh graders from the emphasis in English major in a focus group. There is a historical motivation for this decision connected to my own teaching experience in a Christian school back in 2014, which I will explain in the next section. Needs analysis Analyzing gender inequality in L2 oral participation emerged from a first teaching experience in a high school in Fusagasugá (a small municipality in the Department of Cundinamarca – Colombia) in 2014. In that period, five observations were made with seventh graders while they developed group activities as debates, written exercises about common students’ experiences, and organization of comedies, among others. The second instrument used at that time was an audio-recording taken from a socialization exercise developed after reading an article about a woman who is in jail for hitting her husband. The data collected through these two instruments evidenced a clear gender differentiation at the moment language learners started producing discourses; understanding discourses as those personal or cultural representations expressed in written or oral way. This students’ discourses construction modeled around each activity at the same time started to become competitive. The concept of competition will be defined in Chapter II. However, it suffices to say in this moment that the competitive element is multifaceted..

(15) GENDER INEQUALITY IN ORAL PARTICIPATION: EXPLORING EIGHTH GRADERS’ DISCOURSES IN AN EFL CLASSROOM. 15. This multifaceted nature implies seeing the competitive element from a gendered perspective which is not always considered in studies that explore the interphase between L2 learning and oral participation drawing on gendered discourses. Competition tends to be explored more in the contexts of games (e.g. Michael & Chen, 2006; Chen, Wu, Liao & Chan, 2009) and are mainly understood as “(1) individuals or groups who contest with each other and (2) the presence of clearly-defined goals and enhanced motivation” (Vandercruysse, Vandewaetere, Cornillie & Clarebout, 2013, p. 928). I observed seventh graders’ contestation in L2 oral participation from a gendered perspective as described below. During the English class activities girls assumed a more participatory role than boys; they wanted to speak all the time, go to the board and answer questions. But when boys wanted to do the same, girls disrupted them or they controverted their ideas, thus imposing authority on them, which ended in isolating to the seven boys from the class. This was striking for me, as based on my readings; I had understood that it was boys who allegedly dominated classrooms in oral activities (Baxter, 2002). Later in 2015-2016, in another Christian high school, this time in Bogotá, I started my classroom observation in order to determine whether or not there were patterns related to the previous analysis, as found in the Fusagasugá Christian School also related to gender inequality in oral participation. The course selected was seventh grade, as I have access to this course being the Ethics and Values teacher; there are five boys and eight girls in this class. These seventh graders are taking the English language major that the school offers. This means that my class is taught in English with an emphasis on human values. This group is very particular because although both girls and boys seem to be proficient in English, only girls seem to participate in class and when boys attempt to do it,.

(16) GENDER INEQUALITY IN ORAL PARTICIPATION: EXPLORING EIGHTH GRADERS’ DISCOURSES IN AN EFL CLASSROOM. 16. girls tend to laugh or answer using comments that imply rejection. Following fragment taken from field notes evidences the above fact.. Felipe read the question: what would you do if you saw a woman hitting a man? And when he understood it, he replied to a man? All the students said buuuu, Paty stopped noise translating the situation. The boy to confirm his understanding said ¿ La vieja es la que le esta pegando al man? (Is the lady hitting to man?) everybody laughed. Another girl repeated twice the word “vieja” (lady) and Patty corrected the expression saying “la señorita” the boy took the floor again but somewhat nervous he said I goy and the girls laughed, he continued the idea mentioning that he “ask why he” and the girls corrected saying she and laughing, the boy accepted the correction saying “he and yaa” (no more). (Field note 1, April 28, 2016). This situation reflects a positioning discourse represented by the girls, due to linguistic knowledge that they have acquired. Girls laughed, corrected and intimidated to boy making that he did not continue his idea. Apparently, this fact is hindering language learning in that grade because boys apart of the observations also were interviewed in extra class moments (See Chapter V), appear to avoid participation, and in that way neglecting the development of their own speaking skill. It is important to highlight that the situation presented above is also affecting the social relationships in the classroom; for instance, during the classroom activities and the recess moments, boys and girls hardly ever socialize, and when they do it, it is because they have to fulfill an academic commitment. For the explained reasons, the umbrella term to describe in detail the weaved concepts around the interaction, it is competing discourses in the L2 classroom, which are understood from Baxter’s view (2003) as “discourses through which power relations.

(17) GENDER INEQUALITY IN ORAL PARTICIPATION: EXPLORING EIGHTH GRADERS’ DISCOURSES IN AN EFL CLASSROOM. 17. between speakers are constantly negotiated” (see Chapter II for a more developed concept around this issue). It seems that competing discourses empower language learning processes for some students and disempower them for others, following extract extends that statement. When they finished making the puzzle about the apostles, I asked Mario about its meaning, and although the intervention corresponded to Mario, Sofia decided to answer my question addressed to him, event that is known as overlapping. In spite of Sofia answered, I did the same question again to Mario in order to him retook his discourse, but he preferred do not continue by the Sofia’s interruption.. (Field note 5, May 26, 2016). In the classes activity the students have the same participation conditions; however, in that specific moment I asked to Mario because he rarely do it. Despite my initiative, Sofia took advantage answering his question, putting into practice her skills; that interruption made Mario to desert the conversation, losing the opportunity of learning and acquiring knowledge through the teacher’s feedback. Connecting the two ideas, the difference between Baxter’s study (2002a) and this study is that Baxter identified that boys were exercising discursive power, while my study evidences the opposite situation because girls seem to be the ones who promote competing discourses. This is apparently an issue underexplored in the specialized literature; at least in the Colombian context. After this contextualization where the nature of the schools I have worked for was introduced as well as an overview of my classroom observation where I identified a socially structured learning issue (e.g. boys being dominated by girls in L2 oral classroom participation), I decided to construct a survey for the group of seventh graders to.

(18) GENDER INEQUALITY IN ORAL PARTICIPATION: EXPLORING EIGHTH GRADERS’ DISCOURSES IN AN EFL CLASSROOM. 18. answer. The survey was composed of ten questions focused on the class development and how they felt as boys and as girls. All the seven graders answered it (n=13). The following results represent the most relevant answers selected from the survey: One question inquired about the level of girls’ classroom participation. In relation to this, Figure 1 illustrates that 42% of the students agree with the idea that girls participate actively in these lessons, 25% strongly agree, 17% appear to have a neutral position, 8% disagree, and 8% did not answer. This makes me think that for students, in general, this level of classroom participation has become notorious. Then it could be inferred that girls’ classroom participation appears to be evolving towards a naturalized social practice.. 2. Girls participate actively in the English classes 0%. 8% 8% 25%. 17%. 1. Strongly Disagree. 2. Disagree. 3. Neutral. 4. Agree. 5. Strongly agree. 6. Did not answer. 42%. Figure 1. Class opinion about girls’ classroom participation. A second question inquired about the level of boys’ classroom participation. In relation to this, Figure 2 illustrates that 59% of the students adopted a neutral answer, only 25% agree, 8% disagree and 8% strongly disagree. This shows a tendency in which boys’ classroom participation appears to be less notorious compared to girls’ classroom participation as evidenced before..

(19) GENDER INEQUALITY IN ORAL PARTICIPATION: EXPLORING EIGHTH GRADERS’ DISCOURSES IN AN EFL CLASSROOM. 19. 3. Boys participate actively in the English classes Strongly. 0% 25%. 8%. 1 Disagree 8%. 2 Disagree 3 Neutral. 59%. 4 Agree 5 Strongly agree. . Figure 2. Class opinion about boys’ classroom participation. It seems clear then that these results evidence that students consider that girls participate more actively in the English classes than boys because 67% of answers correspond to girls’ participation while the remaining 33% correspond to boys’ participation. A third question inquired about the level of girls’ attention to others. I was specifically inquiring how much girls’ listen to others in class. In relation to this, Figure 3 illustrates that only 34% of the students agree with this statement while 25% of the students opted for a neutral answer, 25% tend to disagree, 8% strongly disagree, and 8% did not answer..

(20) GENDER INEQUALITY IN ORAL PARTICIPATION: EXPLORING EIGHTH GRADERS’ DISCOURSES IN AN EFL CLASSROOM. 20. 5. Girls listen to others when they are speaking 1 Strongly. Disagree. 0%. 2. 8% 8% [PORCENTAJE]. 25%. 34%. 3 4. 25%. Disagree Neutral. 5 Agree 6 Strongly agree Did not answer. Figure 3. Class opinions about girls’ attention to others.. A fourth question inquired about the level of boys’ attention to others. In relation to this, Figure 4 illustrates that 50% answered neutral, 25% agree, and 25% disagree.. 6. Boys listen to others when they are speaking 0%. 1. 0%. 25%. 25%. 50%. 2. Strongly Disagree Disagree. 3. Neutral. 4. Agree. 5. Strongly agree. Figure 4. Class opinions about boys’ attention to others. The answers given by the students in figures 3 and 4 were varied, because although 34% of the students answered that girls listen to others, the opinions were divided when the question was addressed toward boys´ attention to others: 50% answered neutral,.

(21) GENDER INEQUALITY IN ORAL PARTICIPATION: EXPLORING EIGHTH GRADERS’ DISCOURSES IN AN EFL CLASSROOM. therefore, it is not possible to determine who develops this listening process more effectively in regards to others. These results evidence a notorious imbalance in relation to participation and attention between boys and girls during classes. However, it is also notorious that there is not equity in class participation. Based on these results, I decided to conduct more systematic classroom observation with a focus on oral participation. Discourses were transcribed and analyzed closely in order to back up the problem. Class activity 01: Correcting the exam Context: Students got back their exam results and they were commenting on their achievements question by question when the following two extracts took place. Extract 01 1 Leidy: ¿Cuánto se sacó en la evaluación? 2 Santiago: No me fue bien 3 Fernanda: Es que le da pena (En tono burlón) English version 1 Leidy: What grade did you get in the exam? 2 Santiago: I did not do well 3 Fernanda: He feels ashamed Extract 02 7 Steven: ¿En qué pregunta van? 8 Vanessa: En la ocho 9 Steven: ¿Hasta ahora? 10 Daniela: Usted se mete en todo; somos nosotras no usted English version 7 Steven: In what question are you? 8 Vanessa: In the eighth question 9 Steven: Until now? 10 Daniela: You get into everything; it is us, not you. In Extract 01 the interventions denote a competitive discourse associated with the grade obtained in the exam which is closed by Fernanda (3) who tried to explain the omission (grade) (2) saying “Es que le da pena” (He feels ashamed). Extract 02 started again with a competitive discourse which started to turn into gender discourse when they saw that Steven was showing greater advance in the activity. 21.

(22) GENDER INEQUALITY IN ORAL PARTICIPATION: EXPLORING EIGHTH GRADERS’ DISCOURSES IN AN EFL CLASSROOM. 22. than them (girls). One of them (10) comes to their defense by showing that the girls circle is closed and he should not ‘intrude’. In both Extracts it seems that girls, regardless of the exam results, fight back comments made by boys and use derogatory language to deny boys’ possibilities to participate in the correction exercise and in the socialization of results. Below is another example of a class activity: Class activity 02: Creating a horror novel Context: Students are getting ready to start off a writing activity when the following interaction took place. Extract 03 15 Gerson: Otra vez se me hizo tarde hoy 16 Juan: ¿Por qué? 17 Gerson: Es que me dio pereza alistar los cuadernos anoche 18 Juliana: Por eso es que siempre le va mal English version 15 Gerson: Again I was late today 16 Juan: why? 17 Gerson: Because I was lazy getting the notebooks ready last night 18 Juliana: That’s why you’re always bad at school. Extract 03 is co-constructed interactionally between two male students and it is about the reason why one of them (Gerson) has arrived late for school. The conversation was being developed in a normal way when all of a sudden it was interrupted by a female student (Juliana) who decided to connect Gerson´s event to his academic performance (18), positioning him negatively.. Class activity 03: Socializing news where a man was abused by his wife Context: Students are participating in a class debate when the following interaction took place Extract 04 30 Manuela: Pues que la mujer se cansó como de que cada rato la estén maltratando, y la otra es que los hombres se avergüenzan porque pues es muy.

(23) GENDER INEQUALITY IN ORAL PARTICIPATION: EXPLORING EIGHTH GRADERS’ DISCOURSES IN AN EFL CLASSROOM. 23. raro que una mujer le pegue a un hombre [a boy attempts to add something raising his hand] hay espere chito que estoy hablando; es que antes era contra la mujer y ya era como normal que un hombre la maltratara. 31 Stiven: Pues yo quiero decir algo - Daniela interrupted: el único hombre 32 Stiven: Porque normalmente eso debería ser al contrario. 33 Girls: Nooooo 34 Stiven: Esperense, espérense, yayayaya 35 Teacher: Listen to his opinion! 36 Stiven: Entonces sería lo mejor que aumentara más el número de hombres que denuncien porque es muy bajo y que pena por lo que dije al principio. 37 Antonio: Que cuando la mujer le pega al hombre y no la demanda es porque él le tiene respeto y no le quiere responder con una golpiza o una demanda porque él la ama mucho a ella. 38 Jean Paul: Pues, yo pienso que el hombre no debería golpear a la mujer ni la mujer al hombre, la mujer que le pega al hombre es por vengarse y la venganza no lleva a nada, entonces yo le pegaría a Laura porque ella me dice Jean Pola. Todos se rien 39 Teacher: ¿Laura te dice Jean Pola? 40 Laura: Pero eso no es maltrato. 41 Boys: Noooooo! English Version Extract 04 30 Manuela: So, the woman is already tired of being constantly abused and on the other hand, men feel ashamed because it is not common that a woman hits a man [a boy attempts to add something] silence I am talking; before, it was against women and it was like normal that men abused them. 31 Stiven: I want to say something -Daniela interrupted: the only man 32 Stiven: because normally that must be on the contrary 33 Girls: Nooooo 34 Stiven: Wait, wait, now, now, now, now 35 Teacher: Listen to his opinion! 36 Stiven: Then, it would better if the number of men denouncing increased because the actual number is very low and I am sorry for what I said before 37 Antonio: When a woman hits a man and he does not sue her is because he feels respect for her, and he does not want to respond to her with a beating or sue her because he loves her so much 38 Jean Paul: Well, I think that neither a man should hit a woman nor a woman hit a man. The woman who hits a man does it for revenge and revenge does not lead to anything, then I would hit Laura because she calls me Jean Pola.

(24) GENDER INEQUALITY IN ORAL PARTICIPATION: EXPLORING EIGHTH GRADERS’ DISCOURSES IN AN EFL CLASSROOM. 24. Everybody laughs 39 Teacher: Does Laura call you Jean Pola? 40 Laura: But that is not abuse 41 Boys: Noooooo!. This debate was generated by reading the news about a woman who hit her husband. A girl took the first turn to participate. When she was in the middle of her intervention another boy attempted to add something but she immediately reacted demanding him to remain silent as she is talking (30); then, when the first boy wanted to present his opinion, another girl interrupted him to clarify that he was the only man who had decided to participate (31), but he did not answer anything to her and he continued talking in comparison to Manuela´s reaction (30). Even though Stiven continued his intervention, the last part of it made the girls reject it by shouting “Nooo”. This requested the teacher’s intervention in order to maintain the classroom climax and an open door for participation. When he listened to the response from his classmates (girls), Stiven decided to retract in the next intervention (36). After that, another boy felt encouraged to participate presenting two elements whereby he considered a man did not denounce his wife for love and respect. Jean Paul contrasted his classmate’s comment indicating that revenge does not justify abuse, putting him as an example when he said that although Laura calls him names (e.g. Jean Pola) he would not hit her (38). Facing this confession, Laura replied that this fact was not abuse (40) making boys manifest their unconformity (41). The data collected from these oral interactions portray a clear difference between the female and male (gender) discourses that emerged in the on- tasks and off-tasks developed during the English classes. In this situation it is apparently visible how gender discourses empower or disempower the students, making some of them portray/exercise dominance in classroom.

(25) GENDER INEQUALITY IN ORAL PARTICIPATION: EXPLORING EIGHTH GRADERS’ DISCOURSES IN AN EFL CLASSROOM. 25. oral participation while the other ones accept and receive passively those patterns, naturalizing that dominance. This gender dominance discourse, according to the analysis made, is reflected in the constant overlapping carried out by the girls during boys’ conversations and participations. Moreover, this dominance is portraying girls using their discourse in such a way that boys can accept their demands which tend to benefit girls more than boys in relation to access to interactional turns and learning opportunities. These findings, besides being directly related to gender discourses and to English language learning, because most of the girls do not value the boys within their learning process (Maher & Thompson, 2001) their opinions, suggestions, etc., making their learning limited only to their own (girls) experiences and constructions; which is contrary to the four basic principles of the institution, individuality, stewardship, self-government, and christian character that involve appreciation and valuing of my and others’ ideas. However, most of the boys do not value, express and defend their thoughts, feelings and expectations, therefore preferring not to make use of the language and staying quiet or using the language to get approval. This absence of assertive communication has made the L2 learning process become unidirectional and restricted, generating an apparent environment of fear and limitations. This problematic situation presents a different perspective to the discursive dominance topic, which has been studied and worked from a paradigm where women are presented as victims within the discursive field due to the difficulties evidenced in relation to participation, access and socializing in a second language (Gordon, 2004; Rojas, 2012). In light of the above, many research studies have centered their attention in the way to regulate participation opportunities for them, looking to minimize male dominance participation..

(26) GENDER INEQUALITY IN ORAL PARTICIPATION: EXPLORING EIGHTH GRADERS’ DISCOURSES IN AN EFL CLASSROOM. 26. Statement of the problem In relation to the literature-based facts analyzed, there seems to be a missmatch between what the literature presents about male discursive dominance and what happens in the context studied, according to empirical observations (e.g. other forms of gender inequality – boys being dominated by girls). Research question What gender-inequality discourses (if any) are present in the EFL classroom when eighth graders develop oral activities about ethics and values topics? Research objectives General objective. •. To explore gender-inequality discourses (if any) present during EFL oral activities about ethics and values topics.. Specific objectives. •. To identify gender-inequality discourses in EFL oral activities.. •. To describe those gender inequality discourses in relation to oral participation and L2 learning..

(27) GENDER INEQUALITY IN ORAL PARTICIPATION: EXPLORING EIGHTH GRADERS’ DISCOURSES IN AN EFL CLASSROOM. 27. Justification The classroom is one of the places where students construct their dreams, thoughts and positions; “these subject positions are further interwoven with the social relations of gender as well as categories such as age, ability, ethnic background, class, and so on” (Baxter, 2002, p. 830). That construction is generated through the exchanging ideas; face to the same situation students can react or opine different, expressing their own concerns as well as feeding their background from others’. Gender discourses, specifically the ones emerging in the classroom, are important sources to know how students learn and who they are. “The dialogical interaction of everyday life constitutes a sensitive barometer which registers subtle processes of social change before they solidify into fully fledged social forms” (Littoseliti & Suderland, 2002, p. 31). Hence, the importance of identifying, analyzing, and addressing those discourses from the classroom to society. According to Davis (2004, p. 394): “studies are clearly needed of the complex ways in which identity constructions, including gender, interconnect with dominant discourse practices to support or hinder English language learning”. Based on this statement in our Colombian context there is the need to research how these key elements work together in the L2 learning context. For instance, in the context studied, these elements have being taken from an isolated way from each other, even separated from language learning; instead of being tools to promote language learning and an integral person growing these have become in obstacles for their development. This research project contributes to discourse studies within the field of educational settings, through important data about gender inequality in oral participation. Data emerged during EFL activities were analyzed in relation and their incidence on the L2 learning; in.

(28) GENDER INEQUALITY IN ORAL PARTICIPATION: EXPLORING EIGHTH GRADERS’ DISCOURSES IN AN EFL CLASSROOM. 28. order to take into account these implications before, during, and after the process. Be aware about gender in the class will strengthen, enrich, and make the Teaching-Learning (TL) practice meaningful. From a more local view, this research study provided, the institution studied, with a new perspective about how inequality can also be reproduced in relation to oral patterns in order to be aware and create strategies from the curriculum that promote a democratic and egalitarian participation for optimizing L2 learning. This experience as teacher-researcher opened my mind a little more towards the multiple factors which influence in a positive or a negative way the L2 learning process. Oral participation is one of the most significant ways of language learning, which in the context studied is being affected by gender dominant discourses; that fact makes me reflect about how, as teachers, we cannot accept or naturalise these kinds of behaviours in the classroom; on the contrary, we have to denounce them, generating alternative solutions for the creation of a respectful, tolerant, and participative classroom..

(29) GENDER INEQUALITY IN ORAL PARTICIPATION: EXPLORING EIGHTH GRADERS’ DISCOURSES IN AN EFL CLASSROOM. 29. CHAPTER II Literature review Since the end of the last century, authors such as Thorne (1993) and Francis (1997, 1998) highlighted the importance of researching gender in relation to the discursive practices in school contexts. In those contexts, elementary schools in California-London respectively, gender emerged naturally under the interaction framework. Each child and teen assumes a position within this discursive world, thus constructing step by step their identity. Having in mind the previous idea, the present research report looks into gender inequality discourses in EFL learning activities, which bear three main constructs: gender, discourses, and EFL learning activities. The analysis of these elements is important due to their implications within L2 learning. The discourses constructed and represented in the classroom have become one of the most important study factors in the Teaching-Learning (T-L) process. These discourses are a sample of social and personal construction of each individual in the classroom; empowering or disempowering student if they are related to two essential factors: gender and power (Thorne, Kramarae & Henley, 1983). In the first section, gender will be described from different perspectives as social structure, social position, and social identity, which are directly linked to conversation, discourse strategies, and learning. The second section focuses on a general definition of discourse and the three kinds of discourses which act in relation to power. The third and last section will present an analysis of EFL learning activities, starting with the relevance of classroom, complemented by the socio-cultural theory implications as frame..

(30) GENDER INEQUALITY IN ORAL PARTICIPATION: EXPLORING EIGHTH GRADERS’ DISCOURSES IN AN EFL CLASSROOM. 30. Gender In the last decades, gender has become a key element within English language learning. It is a determinant factor which can facilitate or inhibit the development of that process (Sunderland, 1996); being as gender conditions the way to see the world and receive information, according to the background and beliefs attributed to men and women. Gender has different connotations. For instance, according to Connell (2002), it is a ‘social structure’ where people relate with each other reflecting their differences. This concept is directly associated with Crawford´s (2006) and Litosseliti´s (2006) view, who add that, within this structure, both men and women construct and demonstrate roles, behaviors, expectations, and attitudes determined by society. In that sense, gender is a social position in which men are direct, authoritative, and forceful, while women are more polite, gentler, and more emotional (Butler, 1990; Ersoy, 2008; Gough, 2006; Jeftha, 2006; Tannen, 1992). However, contemporary theorists add that gender is intricately intertwined with social identities like race, class, ethnicity, sexuality, and (dis)ability, and therefore cannot be neatly extracted (e.g., Eckert & McConnell-Ginet, 1992, 1998; Morgan, 1999; Pavlenko, Blackledge, Piller, & TeutschDwyer, 2001; Rampton, 1995) the way social stereotyping has done during years. This new perspective proposes gender as something that is in constant construction (not fixed) through ‘particular ideologies’ and ‘semiotic resources’ such as language, gesture, and dress, among others (Butler, 1990; Cameron, 1998). Although this gender conceptualization extends the ways in which gender operates and it can be understood, it is necessary to emphasize the particularities between men and women which also enrich the perception of gender. These particularities are present in different contexts, but in this theoretical framework, the interaction in conversations and similar activities will be.

(31) GENDER INEQUALITY IN ORAL PARTICIPATION: EXPLORING EIGHTH GRADERS’ DISCOURSES IN AN EFL CLASSROOM. 31. deepened, because this research is focused on what gender inequalities discourses are present during these types of activities. Consequently, Weatherall (2000) suggests that “linguistic indexes of gender may occur at every level of language. So, even if gender is not explicitly privileged by participants as relevant to the conversation, it is an omnipresent feature of all interactions” (pp. 287). These interactions are nurtured by different discourse strategies (Ersoy, 2008) that both men and women implement to participate and distinguish in a conversation; the same strategies articulated to different contexts become communication skills that strengthen the learning and use of language. Regarding discourse strategies, kindness and domination; these are used in order to fulfill different purposes established by users (consciously or unconsciously). Taking into account that these strategies are different for women and men, which is key within gender studies, it is necessary to analyze separately both discourse strategies in order to identify particular patterns. In relation to those strategies, in her study Tannen (1992) determined that women use polite conversation and communication strategies for cooperation and collaboration purposes. Men, on the other hand, use them to “show dominance, to protect themselves from others and generally seem to view conversation as a contest, a struggle, in order to preserve independence and avoid failure” (pp. 24) being dominance their strategy. The purposes can be related not only to communicative items, but also to language learning-investment; men and women conceive these processes differently. The research studies conducted by Diab (2000), Siebert (2003) and Govindasamy and David (2004) corroborate that fact. Diab (2000) investigated language learning beliefs of 284 Lebanese students (57 percent male and 43 percent female) who were learning English as a foreign language in.

(32) GENDER INEQUALITY IN ORAL PARTICIPATION: EXPLORING EIGHTH GRADERS’ DISCOURSES IN AN EFL CLASSROOM. 32. three universities. According to statistics, gender-related differences were identified; thus, the female students’ motivation-confidence to learn and use this language was higher compared to the males. Another example is Siebert’s research (2003) conducted among foreign students at various USA colleges. The participants were 155 learners of English (91 male and 64 female) from countries such as Chile, China, Indonesia, Japan, Kuwait, Laos, Taiwan, and Thailand. The study evidenced some gender-related differences. The differences emerged in relation to the language learning approach and strategies use. Additionally, the male students presented linguistic self-confidence and estimated their ability to learn more than female students. Despite these characteristics, the male learners underestimated the length of time needed to master the English language. Moreover, the research study conducted by Govindasamy and David (2004) described a need analysis study developed at the International Islamic University in Malaysia. Almost two thirds of the student population was female in this higher education institution. The findings revealed that although male students did not feel intimidation in the classroom, they invested less in language education, which did not adequately prepare them for the business world. These three studies revealed how gender is a determinant factor which can modify learning processes positively or negatively. Gender has many connections with different instances: conversation, language, learning, and investment, among others; however, one of the most important reflections is that learning how to be and how to do things like a man or a woman, a boy or a girl, is a way to acquire gender identity (Coates, 2004).This gender identity is expressed in different ways; one of them is through discourse, which is in.

(33) GENDER INEQUALITY IN ORAL PARTICIPATION: EXPLORING EIGHTH GRADERS’ DISCOURSES IN AN EFL CLASSROOM. 33. constant production and reproduction in micro-macro societies. Discourses Discourses come and go in society. They are related to different topics and they address all people with multiple intentions. To understand how discourses operate in determined contexts, as in a language classroom for example, it is necessary to define them first. Discourses are “representations of the material world, other social practices, reflexive self-representations…” (Fairclough, 2003, p. 26). Discourses transcend the linguistic barrier. In that sense, Castañeda-Peña asserts that discourses are “ways of becoming, being (within) and understanding the world” (2008, p. 317). From this perspective, discourses acquire a social value which is directly related with the power relations along society. Hence, discourses assume a holistic view where not only linguistic and social aspects are involved, but also power. For this reason, discourses can be conceived as “forms of knowledge or powerful sets of assumptions, expectations and explanations, governing mainstream social and cultural practices” too (Baxter, 2003, p. 7). In this sense, individual and social ‘realities’ are constructed, transformed, and experienced through discourses (Baxter, 2002) in any context. A clear example is presented in the “student and teacher–student relationships which are governed and organized by the range of discourses available within the school and classroom context” (Baxter, 2003, p. 91). To sum up, I interpret that discourses extend or reduce the communication- learning possibilities and understanding the world, when those discourses are associated to knowledge and beliefs, which have been constructed by the individual or group over time and during conversations. In the same way, there are many kinds of discourses and they “exist in relation to other discourses” (Litosseliti & Sunderland 2002, p. 11). This variety of discourses helps to.

(34) GENDER INEQUALITY IN ORAL PARTICIPATION: EXPLORING EIGHTH GRADERS’ DISCOURSES IN AN EFL CLASSROOM. 34. understand how people construct their identities (Martín & Muthukrishna, 2011). Three of these discourses will be explained in more depth, since these are the ones that emerge during the EFL oral activities in the context studied.. Discourse of approval. This kind of discourse is used by speakers in order to get approval and support (Baxter, 2003) when they are speaking; this support in the classroom proceeds from teachers and classmates and it is related to learning and positioning. A person who receives approval is recognized within a group; therefore, he or she receives a position: “a conceptual repertoire and a location for persons” (Davies & Harre, 1999, p.35). Approval is constantly carried out through a model of collaborative talk, which seeks to cooperate, facilitate, and support who is participating (Baxter, 2002). Although this model is proposed to generate equity and participatory democracy in the classroom, it can also be implemented in a negative way; for instance, from some observations conducted in the context studied. I evidenced that when some student is taking the floor constantly, rejecting or underestimating the opinion of one or more classmates, that model tends to be used by the students who approve this kind of patterns, generating bullying. The previous discourse is related to the gender differentiation one, because most of their features are represented in the gender discourse (see class transcription 1, P13, May 4, 2016 in Chapter V). Discourse of gender differentiation. “Discourse as social practice is a pertinent approach to the study of gender and language” (Litosseliti & Sunderland, 2002, p. 15). Based on this affirmation, it could be inferred that the discourse of gender differentiation can be understood as the way used by boys and girls to position themselves during discursive social practices, as ‘effective speakers’ in a determined context (Baxter, 2003)..

(35) GENDER INEQUALITY IN ORAL PARTICIPATION: EXPLORING EIGHTH GRADERS’ DISCOURSES IN AN EFL CLASSROOM. 35. In this research study, for example, the analysis turns around the girls´ positioning as effective speakers over boys exercising symbolic power. This positioning is constantly negotiated during spontaneous or conducted conversations; everybody wants to take the floor and win (Andreouli, 2010), making discourses of gender differentiation become competing. In Baxter’s (2003) words:. “Discourses of gender will themselves be competing with other institutionalized or less formalized discourses within the classroom. Such discourses do not operate in discrete isolation from each other but are always inter-textually linked, that is, each discourse is likely to be interconnected with and infused by traces of the others” (p. 8).. In the classroom studied, for instance, gender, academic, media, friendship, power, and faith discourses, among others, compete daily around different activities developed by the teacher and students. This discursive competition molds the subject positions step by step, following example reflects that positioning: Context: Students were watching a video about Agape, the God’s love I asked Camilo why he considered that an old man was presenting the Agape love and not a younger or a woman, he answered by experience. Samuel complemented his classmate´s idea adding that taking into account the man´s age he had a higher knowledge of Jesus. (Field note 1, April 28, 2016). Competing discourses. Competing discourses vary depending on the historical, cultural or social context; these are discourses “through which power relations between.

(36) GENDER INEQUALITY IN ORAL PARTICIPATION: EXPLORING EIGHTH GRADERS’ DISCOURSES IN AN EFL CLASSROOM. 36. speakers are constantly negotiated” (Baxter, 2002a, p. 829). This “power is exercised through a net-like organization. And not only do individuals circulate between its threads; they are always in the position of simultaneously undergoing and exercising this power” (Foucault, 1980, p. 98 as cited in Murphy and Gipps, 1996, p. 92). The exercise of power can vary if people are “positioned as ‘powerful’ within one particular discourse they may well be positioned as ‘powerless’ within an alternative discourse” (Baxter, 2002a, p. 830). In many cases, this power is symbolic. As Bourdieu (1991) and Norton (2000) claim, it is the combination between some resources as cultural capital (knowledge accredited by an institution) and social capital (relationships). This kind of power positions people in a competitive world where knowledge and relations are important to survive and grow. Even though this power is symbolic and different to other kinds of power, it has a negative connotation, because its purpose is to use this set of elements to exercise control/dominance on certain individuals. To contextualize this overview about discourse and power, it is necessary to focus these conceptions within the classroom where these manifestations of power are given from different ways; one of them is the interruption or overlapping. “It consists that a second speaker is violating the conversational rights of the first, and assumptions about the second speaker's intentions seem to follow logically from that (trying to dominate)” (Tannen, 2007, p. 341). This interruption feature disempowers to those students who are more passive and followed conversation patterns (turn-taking) and it also empowers to whose are more dominant. Empowerment in the classroom is not only exercised through explicit discussion, but also through “negotiation of power and control” among the participants (Norton & Pavlenko, 2004, p. 511). This struggle of power constructs step by step identities of each.

(37) GENDER INEQUALITY IN ORAL PARTICIPATION: EXPLORING EIGHTH GRADERS’ DISCOURSES IN AN EFL CLASSROOM. 37. one of the participants which emerge from discourse (Bucholtz, 1999); in other words, discourse constructs students’ identities and this in the same way is portrayed during the discourse. “There exist a variety of competing discourses, some which have more power and influence for particular groups” (Martin & Muthukrishna, 2011, p. 3800). “Individuals are always in a position of simultaneously undergoing and exercising this ‘power’, located as they are within different and competing discourses according to context” (Foucault, 1980, p. 98 as cited in Baxter, 2003, p. 8). In some contexts, the competing discourses turn around proficiency, effectivity in participation or gender itself. Research developed by Zhang (2010) and Wang (2000) clarify the previous statements with the following: . During oral activities, males were more competitive because they got the floor many times and they were effective in their answers. This ‘discursive boys´ dominance’ reflected the difficulty in the girls´ participation, because they were silent most of the time (Zhang, 2010).. . “White boys in my study stated that speaking and acting aggressively towards girls and other boys was an important way to display masculinity. Thus boys' "performance" of manhood is validated when they dominate others through their talk and practices” (Wang, 2000, p. 114).. These two studies present a particularity in common which is related to the competing discourse during oral activities; in those populations, males tried to dominate girls and other boys ‘less powerful than them’ by imposing their points of view and silencing the rest of the group. This particularity is also present in my research study, but in an opposite way, where girls are the ones who represent that discursive dominance..

(38) GENDER INEQUALITY IN ORAL PARTICIPATION: EXPLORING EIGHTH GRADERS’ DISCOURSES IN AN EFL CLASSROOM. 38. Competing discourses emerge during the development of significant activities in different contexts; when this context is related to the language classroom, these activities can be called EFL learning activities. EFL learning activities EFL learning activities is conceived as a construct due to gender inequality discourses emerge, are identified and analyzed in relation to specific interaction patterns that are manifested around the learning activities developed in a classroom. Walkerdine (1990) argued that the school classroom is one of sites where the students’ subjectivity is constructed. In the same line, Nikita & Furuoka (2007) stated that “the language classroom has a unique socio-educational environment. It is a place where the learners need to speak and to interact with the classmates considerably more than they might be required while learning other subjects” (p. 2). In that sense, EFL and ESL classrooms represent spaces where linguistic and social areas are developed. Besides these two areas, Norton & Pavlenko (2004) propose that the classroom is at the same time a zone where cultural worlds come into contact, because in those classrooms opportunities are offered for teachers to promote cultural differences as well as social constructions of gender and sexuality, helping students to construct and improve linguistic and intercultural competence (Kramsch & von Hoene, 2001). From a socio-cultural perspective, a classroom is an integral environment where learning is daily constructed through knowledge and experiences shared along each class activity (Donato, 1994). These experiences represented in discourses like the ones defined previously, and their emersion allows socio-cultural theory to become important in that setting and likewise in the EFL learning activities what are developed..

(39) GENDER INEQUALITY IN ORAL PARTICIPATION: EXPLORING EIGHTH GRADERS’ DISCOURSES IN AN EFL CLASSROOM. 39. Socio-cultural-theory. Socio-cultural theory not as a construct but as frame of EFL learning activities, it focuses on the mental practices development taken as a core social interaction within the communication and learning processes (Behroozizad, Nambiar & Amir, 2014; Lantolf & Thorne, 2006.). Donato (2000) indicates that cognitive approaches ascribe language learning to internal processes, while socio-cultural theory conceives learning from the participation in social-learning activities. This type of learning is known as collaborative learning which, addressed from socio-cultural learning theories, offers more effective opportunities to learn. It is a setting where, according to Wang (2007),. “Students learn in a community-of-learners environment, where they act as community members. They engage in the class activities, interact with others and solve problems or complete tasks, think and talk about their thinking, and explore answers to the problems or tasks” (p. 150).. This learning allows “students to learn through talking” (Boyd & Maloof, 2000, p.163), increasing their self and collective expression of experiences. According to Miccoli (2000), the collective experiences evidence common behavior patterns that present the classroom as a culture. However, it is relevant to take into account that the particular experiences also fulfill an important role within the individual nature of the learning process. Students’ talk is an important element of socio-cultural theory; when they participate in class asking- answering questions or making comments to the teacher and classmates, they get involved in their own learning (Gorette, 2008). To the same extent,.

(40) GENDER INEQUALITY IN ORAL PARTICIPATION: EXPLORING EIGHTH GRADERS’ DISCOURSES IN AN EFL CLASSROOM. 40. Van Lier (2000) conceives interaction not only as input, but also as output, due to students also having the opportunity to use the target language while they are interacting. With this in mind, a research context will be presented in order to analyze the sociocultural aspect and their implications: Make Jobo (2013) carried out a study in Ethiopia in which 93 students from two colleges (Awassa and Hossana) were interviewed in order to know whether the socio-cultural aspects are relevant for them in their learning. Taking into consideration that Ethiopia has more than 75 ethnic groups with their distinct languages, cultures, beliefs, traditions, rituals and social identities, most of the students (79 out of 93 students) claimed that their linguistic, social, and cultural diversity is one of the sources of challenges for classroom interaction and definitely in learning. Socio-cultural theories involve many aspects; in order to students learn by participating in social – learning activities, expressing ideas orally. Within these aspects, oral literacies emerge embracing language, community, and power within the same communicative context. Oral literacies. Communication is a process where meaning and understanding are exchanged; it is an interactive process that involves two communication agents, sender and receiver (Rahman, 2010), reciprocally. Communication is given through language, which is integrated by words, symbols and gestures, verbal and non- verbal language. Kuhl (2004) asserts that children learn language unconsciously, they learn about it through the same contact with language, acquiring the necessary abilities to interact with others and environment. In the same sense, language is divided in four skills: listening, speaking, reading and writing. The speaking skill is referred to oral literacies and it is important for language itself, because without speech, language is only script. In regards to the individual, the.

(41) GENDER INEQUALITY IN ORAL PARTICIPATION: EXPLORING EIGHTH GRADERS’ DISCOURSES IN AN EFL CLASSROOM. 41. speaker receives distinct advantages such as the capacity of thoughts, opinions, and feelings expression; when he or she attributes meaning to each utterance what construct as a person (Ishrat, 2010). In order to carry out successful communication, Rahman (2010) highlights that people (students) need to acquire basic oral elements such as grammar structures, vocabulary, knowledge about context as well as kinesthetic sources which include eye contact, body language, understanding/ adapting to the audience, politeness, precision, and conciseness, having in mind that the body is also a means of expression. These aspects attribute the speaker confidence to transmit and understand (Goodwin, 2001), paying attention not only to isolated words, but also to the communicative context as a whole. Oral communication is based on four dimensions or competences: “grammatical competence (phonology, vocabulary, word and sentence formation…); discourse competence (cohesion and how sentences are linked together); strategic competence (compensatory strategies to use in difficult situations) and finally, sociolinguistic competence (rules for interaction, social meanings)” (Lazaraton, 2001, p. 104). This last competence, sociolinguistic, specifies that language is a social act where the person’s world reconstructs every day through interaction. Language is involved within a community and these both are interrelated (Ishrat, 2010), influencing one over another; conceiving community as whatever social sphere where two or more people have a common communication interest. Successful communication is context dependent. For this reason, informal conversations which occur spontaneously and are generally not planned are the generators of community discourses. Within these community discourses given in different micro societies, oral communication reflects a powerful role of language regarding human behavior. Orality is.

Figure

Figure 1. Class opinion about girls’ classroom participation.
Figure 2. Class opinion about boys’ classroom participation.
Figure 4. Class opinions about boys’ attention to others.
Figure 5.  Data analysis frameworks
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