supportive attitudes sexual Predictors aggression of in adolescents: Gender dominance vs.rape to Legal Context The European Journal of PsychologyApplied

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The European Journal of Psychology Applied to Legal Context

w w w . e l s e v i e r . e s / e j p a l

Predictors of sexual aggression in adolescents: Gender dominance vs.

rape supportive attitudes

Nieves Moyano

^a

, Fredy S. Monge

^b

, Juan Carlos Sierra

^c,∗

aUniversidaddeEspecialidadesEspírituSanto,Guayaquil,Ecuador

bUniversidadNacionaldeSanAntonioAbaddelCusco,Perú

cCentrodeInvestigaciónMente,CerebroyComportamiento(CIMCYC),UniversidaddeGranada,Espa˜na

a r t i c l e i n f o

Articlehistory:

Received19February2016

Receivedinrevisedform10June2016 Accepted13June2016

Availableonline27July2016

Keywords:

Sexualaggression Sexualdoublestandard Rapeattitudes Adolescents

a b s t r a c t

Thisstudyexploredtherelationshipbetweensexualdoublestandardandrapesupportiveattitudesin regardtoanindividual’slikelihoodtoperpetratesexualaggression.Weexaminedanadolescentsample of448boysfromPeru,ofwhom148(33.3%)reportedtohavecommittedsexualaggression.Sexual contactwithanunwillingpartnerwasperpetratedby24.8%ofthetotalsample,sexualcoercionby14.3%, attemptedrapeby12.5%,andfinally,rapewasperpetratedby10.3%.Inallthesetypesofaggression,the mostfrequentvictimwasadatingpartner.Comparedtonon-aggressors,maleaggressorsreportedmore sexualdoublestandardandsupportiveattitudestowardsrape.Logisticregressionanalysesrevealedthat themostrelevantvariableinthepredictionofsexualaggressionwasthesubjecthavingbeenavictimof sexualabuseduringadolescenceandhavingrapesupportiveattitudes.Ourfindingssuggestthatviolent attitudesaremoreimportantthantheendorsementofnon-egalitarianbeliefs(sexualdoublestandard) intheperpetrationofsexualviolence.ThesefindingsprovidedatafromPeru,whichcontributetothe worldwidedataonriskfactorsforsexualaggressioninadolescentmales.

Predictoresdelaagresiónsexualenadolescentes:dominanciadegénerovs.

actitudesfavorableshacialaviolación

Palabrasclave:

Agresiónsexual Dobleestándarsexual Actitudeshacialaviolación Adolescentes

re s um e n

Esteestudioexploralarelaciónentreeldobleestándarsexualylasactitudesfavorableshacialaviolación enelriesgodellevaracabounactodeagresiónsexual.Seexaminóunamuestradeadolescentesfor- madapor448chicosdePerú,deloscuales148(33.3%)informaronhaberperpetradoagresiónsexual.En concreto,el24.8%informóhaberperpetradocontactossexualessinelconsentimientodelavíctima,el 14.3%habíacometidoactosdecoerciónsexual,el12.5%intentóllevaracaboviolaciónyel10.3%perpetró violación.Lavíctimamáscomúndeestetipodeabusosfueronlasparejasocasionales.Encomparación conelgrupoquenuncahabíaagredido,losvaronesagresoresinformarondemayordoblemoralsexual yactitudesmáspositivashacialaviolación.Unanálisisderegresiónlogísticarevelóquelavariablemás importanteenlaprediccióndelaagresiónsexualfuehabersidovíctimadeabusosexualdurantelaado- lescenciaytenerunaactitudpositivahacialaviolación.Losresultadossugierenquelasactitudeshaciala violenciasonmásimportantesquelascreenciasnoigualitarias(doblemoralsexual)enlarealizaciónde conductassexualesviolentas.Estehallazgo,alofrecerinformacióndePerú,sea ˜nadealosdatosexistentes anivelmundialsobrelosfactoresderiesgodelaagresiónsexualenadolescentesvarones.

).

∗ Correspondingauthor.FacultaddePsicología,CampusdeCartuja,s/n.18011.

Granada,Spain.

E-mailaddress:[email protected](J.C.Sierra).

Sexualaggressionisawidespreadphenomenoninsocietiesand cultures throughout theworld.Prevalence rates, however,vary fromcountrytocountry.Accordingtoastudyconductedbythe WorldHealthOrganization(WHO)withdatafromtencountries, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpal.2016.06.001

creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

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from13%(Japan)to62%(Peru)ofwomenreportedphysicalvic- timizationintheirlifetime(Garcia-Moreno,Jansen,Ellsberg,Heise,

&Watts,2006).Thesedatahighlightthestrikingprevalencerates ofviolenceinLatinAmericancountries,andparticularlyinPeru.

Anotherstudy byCáceres (2005)showed that 46%of Peruvian womenaged16–30reportednon-consensualsexbyanopposite- sexperpetratoratleastonceintheirlifetime.

Thesehighrates ofsexualaggressionhavebeenobservedat younger ages. For example, research coordinated by the WHO foundthat 23% ofwomen from Limaand 47%of women from Cuzcoreportedhavingsufferedsexualvictimizationbyageﬁfteen (Güezmes&Vargas, 2003).More recentdatafromtheMinistry ofWomenandVulnerablePopulations(MinisteriodelaMujery PoblacionesVulnerables,MIMP,2015)showedthattherehadbeen 28,790casesoffamilyandsexualviolenceinPerufromJanuaryto June2015.Therefore,researchanalyzingtheriskfactorsassociated withhighprevalenceratesofsexualaggressionincountriessuch asPeruisbothtimelyandnecessary.

However,despitethefactthatsexualviolencepreventionpro- grams increasingly target younger ages, there has been little researchwitha sample populationof adolescents. Thisis rele- vantbecausetheendorsementofcertaindominantattitudes,such assexualdouble standard, which is oftenlinkedtodating violence,aredeveloped and establishedatearlyages(Gallagher&

Parrott,2011; Greene& Faulkner,2005; Kreager&Staff, 2009;

Lyons,Giordano,Manning, &Longmore,2011; Marston&King, 2006;Sanchez,Fetterolf,&Rudman,2012).Inparticular,teenage malesareoftenexposedtopeerpressureandthustendtobehave accordingtosocialandgenderexpectations,astheydeveloptheir

“masculineidentity”(Lees,2002).Thisleadsboystobeespecially vulnerabletothedevelopmentofcertainformsofviolentbehaviors (Shen,Chiu,&Gao,2012).

Sexualdoublestandardhasbeendeﬁnedastheappropriate- nessofcertainsexualbehaviorswhentheyareperformedbymen, thanwhentheyareperformedbywomen(Fasula,Carry,&Miller, 2014;Milhausen&Herold,2002).Inotherwords,althoughwomen are stigmatized for engaged in explicit sexualbehaviors, these behaviorsareencouragedinmeninsimilarsexualsituations.The conceptualizationof certain sexualbehaviors as appropriate or inappropriateisoftenguidedbyculturalexpectations(seeByers, 1996;Emmers-Sommeretal.,2010).Inthisregard,LatinAmerican countriesareaspecialcase,astheyoftenendorserelativelymore rigidgenderroles(Gutiérrez-Quintanilla,Rojas-García, &Sierra, 2010;Raffaelli&Ontai,2001).

Variousstudieshaveshownthatrapeattitudesplayanimpor- tant role in sexualviolence (see Sierra, Bermúdez, Buela-Casal,

&Salinas,2014),asthey“servetodenyandjustifymalesexual aggressionagainstwomen”(Lonsway&Fitzgerald,1994,p.134).

Researchonsexual offendershasconceptualizedrapeattitudes intermsofthecognitionsthatjustifywhywomen becomevic- timsof rape.AccordingtoJohnson, Kuck,and Schander(1997), mostrapemythsandrape-acceptingattitudesﬁtintooneofthree categories:(1)blamingthevictim,(2)excusingtheperpetratorof responsibilityfortheassault,and(3)justiﬁcationfortheassault.

Theassociationbetweensupportiverapeattitudesandtheperpe- trationofsexualaggression,throughself-reportedmeasures,has beendemonstratedincollegestudentsandcommunitysamplesof maleadults(i.e.,DeGue,DeLillo,&Scalora,2010;Helmus,Hanson, Thornton,Babchishin,&Harris,2012).Furthermore,adolescents areavulnerablepopulation,asrapeisoftenexperiencedforthe ﬁrsttimeintheseyears(Jewkes&Sikweyiya,2013).

Adirectpositiverelationshipwasfoundbetweenvictimization andrelationalviolencebehaviorinadolescents(Povedano,Cava, Monreal,Varela,&Musitu,2015).Researchindicatesthatprevious experiencesofsexualvictimizationareoftenassociatedwiththe subsequentperpetrationofsexualviolence,asshown incollege

men(e.g.,Russell&Oswald,2002)andcollegewomen(Russell&

Oswald,2001;Shea,1998).Thisisknownasthecycleofsexualcoer- cion(Gannon,Rose,&Ward,2008;Moyano&Sierra,2015;Ward&

Beech,2006).FindingsfromtheNationalLongitudinalStudyofAdo- lescentHealthreﬂectthatvictimizationinadolescentsispredictive oflaterperpetrationofviolenceinadulthood(Gomez,Speizer,&

Moracco,2011).

The present study investigated the sexual double standard andrapesupportiveattitudes,factorsthatmaycontributetoan increasedriskoftheperpetrationofsexualaggressioninasample ofadolescentmalesfromPeru.Inaddition,theroleofself-reported adolescentsexualvictimizationwasexplored.Theconsideration ofthesevariablesisfundamentalforpromotingsexualhealthpro- gramstargetingthispopulation.Culturalvaluesshapeconceptions ofhealthysexuality,andculturalpracticespromotetheseidealsin development(Manago,Greenﬁeld,Kim,&Ward,2014).

Therefore,thisstudyhadthefollowingobjectives:(1)tocom- pareboyswhoreportedtohaveperpetratedsexualaggressionwith boyswhoreportedtohave not,basedontheirendorsementof sexualdoublestandardandsupportiveattitudestowardsrape;(2) todeterminewhichofthesefactors(sexualdoublestandardorsup- portiveattitudestowardsrape)bestpredictssexualaggressionin boys.

Previous research on the adult population has shown that, comparedtoothermen,thosewhoreportmoretraditionalmas- culinityideologiesaremore likelytoreporthavingperpetrated violenceorsexualcoercion(Marín,Gómez,Tschann,&Gregorich, 1997;Santana,Raj,Decker,LaMarche,&Silverman,2006;Sierra, Gutiérrez-Quintanilla,Bermúdez,&Buela-Casal,2009).Conversely, incomparisontolessegalitarianmen,menwithmoreegalitarian genderroleideologiesreportfewerinstancesofphysicalaggression againsttheirintimatepartners(Fitzpatrick,Salgado,Suvak,King,&

King,2004).Therefore,thefollowinghypotheseswereproposed andtested:

H1. Boyswhoreportsexualaggressionwillreportmoresexual doublestandardandamoresupportiveattitudetowardsrapethan non-aggressors.

H2. Self-reportedsexualaggressionwillbepredictedbysexual doublestandardandsupportiveattitudetowardsrape.

Method

Participants

Werecruitedaninitialsamplecomposedof500Peruvianmale adolescents,agedbetween14and17years.Datafrom52partic- ipants wereexcludedbecauseof missing values (i.e.,whenthe questionnaire was incomplete or more than 75% of the items had not been answered). This left a ﬁnal sample of 448. Par- ticipantswererecruitedbyincidentalsamplingfromonepublic secondaryschoolinCusco,Peru.Schoolwasonlyforboysfroma lowtomediumsocioeconomiclevelfamilies.Ofthesample,33%of participants(n=148)reportedhavingengagedinsexualaggres- sionatleastonce(i.e.,sexualaggressors).Asshown inTable1, therewerenosigniﬁcantdifferencesbetweensexualaggressors andindividuals who reportedtohave never perpetratedsexual aggression(i.e.,non-aggressors)inage,residencearea(urbanor rural),orreligiousattendance(fromnevertoeveryday).

Measures

WeusedaSocio-demographicQuestionnairethatcollecteddata aboutsex,age,residencearea,religiousattendance,whotheylive with,andparents’job.

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Table1

Sociodemographic Characteristics of Adolescent Sexual Aggressors and Non- Aggressors.

Sexualaggressors (n=148)

Nonsexual aggressors (n=300)

t/␹²/U

M(SD) M(SD)

Age 16.05(0.82) 16.10(0.81) -.03

n(%) n(%)

Residence .45

Urban 129(87.2) 258(86)

Rural 14(9.5) 36(12)

Religiosity .31

Never 12(8.1) 21(7)

Yearly 42(28.4) 79(26.3)

Monthly 38(25.7) 71(23.7)

Weekly 51(34.5) 123(41)

Everyday 2(1.4) 2(0.7)

The Sexual Double Standard(SDS; Caron,Davis, Halteman, &

Stickle,1993).Thisscaleiscomposedof10itemsansweredona ﬁve-pointLikert-typescale,whichrangesfrom1(stronglydisagree) to5 (strongly agree).It assesses the endorsementof traditional sexualgenderstandards.Higherscoresindicatehigherendorse- mentof SDS.TheauthorsreportCronbach’salphaequal to.72.

TheSpanishadaptationfoundaCronbach’salphavalueof.76in asampleofmen.Thisstudyusedanadaptationofthismeasure administeredinPerubyMonge,Sierra,andSalinas(2013).These authorsproposedareduced9-item,withreliabilityvaluesof.78.

Scoreshavealsoshowntobeinvariantacrossmenandwomen.In thepresentstudy,Cronbach’salphawas.63.

TheRapeSupportiveAttitudesScale(RSAS;Lottes,1991).Weused anadaptationadministeredtoPeruvianwomenbySierra,Monge, Santos-Iglesias,Rodriguez,and Aparicio(2010).Itconsistsof20 itemsansweredonaﬁve-pointLikerttypescale,rangingfrom1 (stronglydisagree)to5(stronglyagree).Theglobalscoreisthesum ofalltheitems.Scoresrangefrom1to100.Higherscoresindicate asupportiveattitudetowardrape.Cronbach’salphavalueofthe originalversionwas.91,andfortheSpanishversionadministered toPeruvianwomenwas.88(Sierra,Mongeetal.,2010).Cronbach’s alphavaluewhenappliedtomaleuniversitystudentsfromSpain was.92(Sierra,Rojas,Ortega,&Martín-Ortiz,2007).Inthepresent study,Cronbach’salphawas.72.

TheSexualExperiencesSurvey(SES)(Kossetal.,2007)iscom- prised of 10 items and contains two subscales. One subscale assessesthecommissionofsexualaggressionaftertheageof14.

Theothersubscaleassesseshavingexperiencedsexualvictimiza- tionafter theageof 14. Anexample of anitem for the sexual aggressivenesssubscaleis“Haveyouhadsexactswithsomeone (fondling,kisses)whenhe/shedidn’twantto,becausehe/shefelt overwhelmedbyyourargumentsandpressure?”Anexampleofthe sexualvictimizationsubscaleis“Haveyouhadsexacts(analororal intercourseorpenetrationbyobjectsotherthanthepenis)when youdidn’twanttobecausesomeonethreatenedyouorusedsome degreeofphysical force(twistingyour arm,holdingyou down, etc.).”Eachitemisansweredonasix-pointLikerttypescaleran- gingfrom0(never),1(1time)andsoonto5(5ormoretimes).This instrumentconsiders foursubtypesof sexualaggression,which wereusedforthepresentstudy:sexualcontact,sexualcoercion, attemptedrape,andrape.Inaddition,aglobalscoreiscomputed byaddingupthefrequency ofeachitem.Kossand Oros(1982) founda Cronbach’sreliability equal to.79 and good test-retest reliabilityafterone-week.Inthepresentstudy,Cronbach’salpha was.91 fortheaggressionversionand.86 forthevictimization version.

Procedure

Between2011and2012,maleadolescentswererecruited to participate ina study ofsexualattitudes. Anauthorizationand consentformwaspreviouslygiventoparentsandschoolteachers.

Studentswhoagreedtoparticipatecompletedapaperandpencil versionofthequestionnaireingroupsof30orfewerinanavailable classroom.Participantsweresittingsufﬁcientlyfaraparttoensure privacy.Oncetheparticipantscompletedthebooklet,thesurvey wasreturnedtotheexperimenterinasealedenvelope.Anonymity, conﬁdentiality, and freedom to withdraw fromthe study were guaranteed.Estimatedcompletiontimeofthequestionnaireswas 30to45minutes.Participantsreceivednocompensationfortheir participationinthestudy.

Results

For the subsequent statistical analyses, the variable sexual aggressionwasdichotomizedasyes/no.“Yes”wasselectedwhen theparticipantreportedtohaveperpetratedsometypeofsexual aggression(i.e.,sexualcontact,sexualcoercion,attemptedrape, orrape)atleastonceinhis/herlifeandwasassignedthevalue 1, whereas“no” wasselectedwhen theparticipant reportedto havenever perpetratedsexualaggressionand wasassigned the value0.Thesameprocedurewasconductedforthevariable“sexual victimization”.

Table2showsthatperpetratorsreportedthefollowingpreva- lence by subtype of aggression: 24.8% sexual contact (i.e., non-penetrative sexual contact, such as kissing, fondling, etc., with an unwilling partner); 14.3% sexual coercion (i.e., sexual intercourse withoutanindividual’s consentbymeansof verbal pressure oruseofauthority); 12.5%attemptedrape; and10.3%

rape.Regardingthenumberoftimessexualaggressionwasper- petrated,52%oftheparticipantsreportedperpetratingaggressive sexualbehavioronlyonce,whereas48%reportedengaginginsex- ualaggressionmorethanonce.Onaverage,aggressors reported perpetratingsexualaggression3.02times(SD=2.99).Inaddition, thevictim perpetratedby subtypeof aggressionwasindicated, consideringthedistinctionfromtheSES:stranger,acquaintance, datingpartner(casualpartner),andex/currentpartner(involved inastablerelationship).

SexualDoubleStandardandRapeSupportiveAttitudesinSexual AggressorsandNon-Aggressors

T-testsforindependentsampleswereconductedtoexploredif- ferencesbetweensexualaggressorsandnon-aggressorsinsexual doublestandardandattitudestowardsrape.Wefoundsigniﬁcant differencesinbothsexualdoublestandard,t(446)=-3.72,p=.000, Cohen’sd=0.18,andattitudetowardsrape,t(446)=-2.64,p=.000, Cohen’sd=0.13. Thatis,compared tothenon-aggressor group, thesexualaggressorgroupreportedasigniﬁcantlyhighersexual double standard (non aggressors M=25.87, SD=5.22; aggres- sorsM=27.88,SD=5.69)andmoresupportiveattitudestowards rape (non aggressors M=59.23, SD=9.20; aggressors M=61.66, SD=9.14).

In addition, the Pearson correlation between sexual double standardandrapesupportiveattitudesshowedasigniﬁcantasso- ciation(r=.46,p=.000).

PredictorVariablesofSexualAggression

Weconductedalogisticregressionanalysistoexplorethepre- dictorvariablesofsexualaggression.Thefollowingvariableswere enteredaspredictors:adolescentsexualvictimization,sexualdoublestandard,andsupportiverapeattitudes.Weusedthebackward

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Table2

FrequencyandPercentageofEachSubtypeofSexualAggressionandVictimPerpetrated.

Sexualaggression n % Victim n

Sexualcontact Yes 111 24.8 Stranger 6

Acquaintance 11

Datingpartner 34

Ex/curentpartner 10

No 337

Sexualcoercion Yes 64 14.3 Stranger 2

Acquaintance 6

Datingpartner 13

Ex/currentpartner 3

No 384

Attemptedrape Yes 56 12.5 Stranger 2

Acquaintance 7

Datingpartner 9

Ex/currentpartner 4

No 285

Rape Yes 46 10.3 Stranger 3

Acquaintance 2

Datingpartner 10

Ex/currentpartner 1

No 291

Table3

SummaryoftheLogisticRegressionwithSexualAggressionastheDependentVariable.

B SE Wald p Odds 95%CI

Adolescentvictimization 2.35 0.24 94.20 .000 10.48 6.52-16.84

Rapesupportiveattitudes 0.02 0.01 4.51 .034 1.02 1.00-1.05

conditionaleliminationmethodtoreducethenumberofTypeII errorsassociatedwithforwardmethods.Thefinalregressionmodel wassignificant(p<.001,df=2)andcorrectlyclassified67%ofthe sample.Resultsrevealedthattheperpetrationofsexualaggression byadolescentmaleswasbestpredictedbyhavebeensexualvictim ofabuseduringadolescenceandsupportiveattitudestowardsrape (seeTable3).

Discussion

Theaimofthisstudywastoexplorethevariablesthatareasso- ciatedwithandwhichbestpredictself-reportedsexualaggression inasampleofPeruvianadolescentmales.Ourresultsrevealedthat 33.3%ofthesamplereportedhavingperpetratedsexualaggres- sionatleastonce.Ofthetotalsample,accordingtothesubtype ofsexual aggression,prevalencerangedfrom 10.3%for rapeto 24.8%forsexualcontactwithanunwillingpartner.Themostfre- quentvictimofanytypeofsexualaggressionwasadatingpartner (casualpartner),whereastheleastfrequentwasastrangeroran ex/currentpartner(forrape).Theseresultsarecomparabletoother prevalencerates of victimizationforsamplesin Spain(Moyano

&Sierra,2015;Santos-Iglesias&Sierra,2012;Vega-Gea,Ortega- Ruiz,&Sánchez,2016),theUnitedStates(Breidingetal.,2015), andvariousLatinAmericancountriessuchasChile(Lehrer,Lehrer, Lehrer,&Oyarzún,2007),Mexico(Cortés-Ayalaetal.,2014),and Brazil(D’Abreu,Krahé,&Bazon,2013).Ourﬁndingsindicatehigh prevalencerates,takingintoaccountthatparticipants–whoseages rangedfrom14to17–were askedaboutaggressionscommitted sincetheageof14.

Whencomparing sexual aggressors and non-aggressors, we foundthatsexualaggressorsreportedhavingfeweregalitariangen- derbeliefsandmoresupportiveattitudestowardsrape.However, Cohen’sdwasnotveryrobust.Moreover,sexualdoublestandard wasfoundtobeassociatedwithrapesupportiveattitudes(r=46).

Thisisconsistentwithpreviousstudiesinwhichtheendorsement

oftraditional genderroleswasassociated withthejustiﬁcation offorcefulactions(Shenetal.,2012;Sierra,Mongeetal.,2010;

Sierra,Santos-Iglesias,Gutiérrez-Quintanilla,Bermúdez,&Buela- Casal,2010).

Inthelogisticregressionanalysis,datarevealedthatthebest predictorsof sexualaggressionwereself-reportedabuseduring adolescenceandrapesupportiveattitudes.Thiswasthecasefor 67%ofthesample.Theseﬁndingssupport,ontheonehandthe cycleofsexualcoercion(Ward&Beech,2006),thatis,individuals whohavebeenvictimizedaremorelikelytobecomeaggressors.

Ontheotherhand,maleswhotendtoperpetratesuchviolenceare morelikelytoacceptjustiﬁcationsforrape.Aspreviouslyshown by Maxwell,Robinson, and Post (2002), attitudes towards vio- lencepredictedmaledatingaggressioninasampleofadolescents.

Consistently,Sierra etal.(2009)concludedthatrapesupportive attitudespredictedsexualcoercioninasampleofuniversitystu- dentsfromSalvador.Thus,violencemightbejustiﬁedbyblaming thevictim. Therefore,justiﬁcationofviolenceisarelevantvari- ableforaggression(Ruiz-Hernández,García-Jiménez,Llor-Esteban,

&Godoy-Fernández,2015),whichhasoftenbeenassociatedwith hostilesexism(Lila,Oliver,Catalá-Mi ˜nana,Galiana,&Gracia,2014).

Previousresearchhasrevealedanassociationbetweenbeinga sexualvictimandlaterperpetratingsexualcoercioninmen(e.g., Moyano&Sierra,2015;Russell&Oswald,2002).Prevalenceofvic- timizationinPeruisamongthehighestfromLatinAmerica(61%) (Garcia-Morenoetal.,2006).Inaddition,40%ofPeruvianadoles- centsandyoungstersinitiatetheirsexlifebyforcedintercourse (Cáceres,Marin,&Hudes,2000).Althoughinthepresentstudywe didnotanalyzewhoweretheperpetratorsofboys’victimization, datafromtheNationalActionPlanforChildhoodandAdolescence (2012-2021)fromPeruindicatethatsexualabuseattheseages tendtobeperpetratedbyaclosely-relatedindividual.Inthissense, theuseofparents’violenceinLatinAmericaishigh,beingboys thosemorehighlyaffected(Gage&Silvestre,2010).Otherdata, fromGuatemalaandSalvador,indicatethat46%and42%ofmen

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respectively,reportedbeingbeatenaspunishmentatyoungerages (Speizer,Goodwin,Samandari,Kim,&Clyde,2008).

Inourstudy,themostreportedvictimperpetratedwasadat- ingpartner(casualpartner).Itislikelythattheseparticipantsare frequentlyinvolvedinviolentrelationshipsinwhichtheyarevic- timsandaggressorsatthesametime.Althoughpreviousresearch showthataggressionismorefrequentlypresentedincommitted datingrelationships(e.g.,Hanley&O’Neill,1997),researchwith collegestudents(Klipfel,Claxton,&vanDulmen,2014)andwith adolescentssuggeststheco-occurrenceofsexualrisk-taking,such as havingcasualpartners and sexual dating aggression(Gover, Kaukinen,&Fox,2008).

Contrarytoexpectations,andincontrastwiththestudycon- ducted by Sierra et al.(2009), sexualdouble standard wasnot foundtoberelevanttothepredictionof sexualaggression.Our ﬁndingsratherindicatethatattitudesthatsupportandjustifycer- tainaggressivebehaviorsaremoreimportantthanbeliefsonthe dominanceof malesover females,at least in adolescence.This is consistentwith a review of thedynamic risk factors of dat- ingviolencefromcontinentalEurope,andfromtheUnitedStates andCanada(Leenetal.,2013).Theauthorssuggestthatattitudes towardsviolence,suchastheacceptanceofrapemyths,tolerance ofviolence,andjustiﬁcationoftheuseofviolence,werereported asriskfactorsfordatingviolenceperpetration.

Theendorsementofsexualdoublestandardattitudesinitself maynotbesufﬁcienttoperpetrateaggression.Asitiswellknown, sexualdoublestandardentailsthedominanceofonegroup(men) over another (women), which is aligned withthe construct of social dominanceorientation,deﬁnedas thedegreetowhich a personholdsanti-egalitarianvaluesandapreferenceforgroup- basedhierarchies(Sidanius&Pratto,2004).Similartosexualdouble standard,mentendtoexhibitmoresocialdominanceorientation.

Inastudyofadolescents,Mayeux(2014)foundthatsocialdom- inanceorientationdidnot predictaggression. Anotherstudyof Chineseadolescentsshowedthatthestrongestpredictorofsex- ualaggression wasthe boys’attitudes towardsdating violence ratherthantheirtraditionalgenderbeliefs(Shenetal.,2012).Taken together,sexualdoublestandardmightbemorerelevant(atleast duringadolescence)tothepredictionofprejudiceattitudes,butnot totheperpetrationofviolence.

Inasimilarvein,a reviewbyFloodandPease(2009)onthe factorsthatinﬂuenceattitudestowardsviolenceagainstwomen, suggestedthatgeneralgenderattitudescannotbetakenasasimple proxyforattitudestoviolenceagainstwomen.Asemphasizedby Murnen,Wright,andKaluzny(2002),measuresofgeneralgender- roleattitudeshavelesspowertopredictmalesexualaggression thanothermeasuresofpatriarchalmasculinebeliefsinparticular.

Anotherlineofinterpretationsregardingnon-significantasso- ciation of non-egalitarian beliefs with violence is that male’s perceptionsoftheattitudesofthefemalepartnermaybeimpor- tantwhenconsideringtheuseofviolenceasawayforthemale to recover dominance. More specifically, some women might endorsesimilar non-egalitarian attitudes,and thus not provide anyresistancetomen’sattitudes.Basedontheconfluencemodel (Malamuth, 2003), oneof themostcomprehensive explanatory modelsofmalesexualaggression,gratificationfromdominating women is a predictor of sexualaggression (within the“hostile masculinity”factor).Inotherwords,malesexualaggressionmay bemotivatedbydominanceandpower,aspreviouslysuggested (Russell & Oswald, 2001; Zurbriggen, 2000). In a similar vein, malesexualattitudesareoftennormalized.Consequently,there isalsoacertainlevelofconstantpressureamongboystobehavein sexuallyaggressiveways,andgirlsaresometimeslikelytoaccom- modatemaleneedsanddesiresinnegotiatingtheirsexualrelations (Hird&Jackson,2001;Tolman,Spencer,Rosen-Reynoso,&Porche, 2003).

Thisstudyobtainedself-reporteddatafromanadolescentsam- pleofPeruvianboys.Todate,littleresearchhasapproachedthe studyofboth gender-attitudesand rape-attitudesinadolescent samples.Therefore,this studyprovidesvaluabledatafor young boysinthisagegroup.Overall,wefoundthatkeyfactorsinthe predictionofsexualaggressionwere:(1)havingbeenavictimof sexualaggressionand(2)theendorsementofsupportiveattitudes towardsrape.Preventionprogramswithaggressorsandpsychoso- cialinterventionsshouldaddressthesefactors,inparticular,those relatedtoviolence-supportiveattitudesandtothejustificationof violence.Thisisimportantbecauseuntilnowmostinterventions havemainlyfocusedongenderinequality,whichisoftenseenas thesoleexplanatoryfactorforgenderviolence(Carbajosa&Boira, 2013).Therefore,thereisaspecialneedformultimodalinterven- tions(seeArce&Fari ña,2010),whichintegrateattitudestowards violenceanditsjustification.

Beyondinterventions,theseﬁndingsshouldbeintegratedinto legalandpoliticalstrategiesproposedbythePeruviangovernment.

Forthelastdecade,severallegalproceedingshavebeendeveloped forthepreventionofsexualabuseinchildrenandadolescentsand thepromotionofgenderequalityinPeru.Someofthesepropo- salsarematerializedintheNationalActionPlanforChildhoodand Adolescence(2012-2021)andtheNationalPlanforGenderEquality (2012-2017).Bothprogramsestablishstrategieswiththepriority toreducesexualviolenceamongchildrenandadolescents,through thepromotionofresearchabouttheriskfactorsofsexualabuseand educationcampaignsbasedonagenderequalityapproach.

This study had certain limitations. First at all, the adolescent sample covered a narrow age range (from 14 to 17). A broaderpicturewould havebeenobtainedifyoungerboyshad alsobeenincorporated.Secondly, giventhatthis researchhasa cross-sectional,correlationaldesign,nocausaleffectscanbeestab- lished.Inthissense,alongitudinalstudywouldhaveallowedusto bettertrackindividualsduringtheiradolescenceandevenonto theiradulttransition.Thiswouldhaveundoubtedlyenrichedthe understandingofsexualaggression.Thirdly,itislikelythatsexual doublestandardmaynotonlyberelatedtosexualaggression,but alsotopsychologicalorverbalaggression(i.e.,disagreementswith thepartneraboutroleexpectations).Fourthly,consideringthatall informationobtainedinthisstudywasbasedonself-reports,social desirabilityshouldhavebeenmeasuredandcontrolled.“Macho”

scriptsarestillrobustinPeru,thusmalesmaybeexaggeratingor minimizingtheirreportoftheiraggressiveness.Finally,regarding victimizationinformation,moredataaboutthecharacteristicsof theperpetratorofthosewhoreporttohavecommittedaggression, shouldbeofinterest(beingvictimizedbyadultsversuspeers).

Theaforementionedmeansthatothermeasurementsofsex- ualaggression,whichencompassabroaderspectrumofviolence and perpetrator’s characteristics, should beconsidered for fur- therresearch.Finally,futurestudiesshouldconsidereithermale’s perceptionofhispartner’sendorsementofthesamesexualstan- dardsorbeliefs(asaggressionmostlikelystemsfromdisagreement between both perspectives) or data collection from the partner.Thistypeofdyadicanalysiswouldprovideknowledgeabout whetherbothpartnerssharethesamegenderbeliefs.

Nonetheless,theresultsofthis studyprovidevaluableinfor- mation for education and intervention programs with male adolescents,whoareavulnerabletargetforpreventionpurposes.

Educationalprogramsshouldpayspecialattentiontoandfocuson theawarenessofrapesupportiveattitudes.

ConﬂictofInterest

Theauthorsofthisarticledeclarenoconﬂictofinterest.

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Acknowledgments

ThisworkwasfundedbytheAgenciaEspa ˜noladeCooperación InternacionalparaelDesarrollo(ResearchProjectA/030018/10).

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