University of Guayaquil
FACULTY OF PHILOSOPHY, LETTERS AND
EDUCATIONAL SCIENCES
School of Language and Linguistics
EDUCATIVE PROJECT
Previo a la obtención del Título de Licenciado
Mención en Lengua y Lingüística Inglesa
TOPIC
BASIC GRAMMAR TEACHING TECHNIQUES IN
ORDER TO PROMOTE THE ELEMENTARY
ENGLISH LEARNING
PROPOSAL
DESIGN OF A HANDBOOK WITH EXERCISES
ABOUT BASIC ENGLISH GRAMMAR
AUTHOR:
VICENTE FERNANDO MEDINA BARREIRO
TUTOR:
MSc. ALFONSO SÁNCHEZ
UN
IVERSIDAD DE GUAYAQUIL
Facultad de Filosofía, Letras y Ciencias de la Educación
Escuela de Lenguas y Lingüística
Directivos
MSC.Silvia Moy-Sang castro MSc. Wilson romero Dávila
DECANA SUBDECANO
DE LA FACULTAD DE FILOSOFIA DE LA FACULTAD DE FILOSOFÍA
MSc. Alfonso Sánchez Ávila Ab. Sebastián Cadena
DEDICATION
To my Wife and dear family, for their constant help,
support and motivation and because they are the reason
of my life.
To my father
:
Francisco Vicente Medina Reyes and
My family
who are the motivation to reach my goals
To my dear Directors
:
Lcda.Raquel Yagual Cochea
and
to my new boss
Josó Moran Cajías
who gave me
reliance and their friendship.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
To God for His great blessings, wisdom and his
daily protection,
to my family because they
support me in each step of my life.
To my tutor Msc.Alfonso Sánchez who guided me
during the development of this research and
shared his knowledge and wisdom with me.
To my English teacher, MSc, Glenda Morales for
her help and teachings to always excel in my
career.
EDUCATIVE PROJECT
DEDICATION
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 1: THE PROBLEM
Location of the problem in context Problem situation
Causes and consequences Delimitation of the problem Formulation of the problem Variables
Evaluation of the problem General objectives
Specific objectives
CHAPTER 2: THE THEORETICAL FRAME
Antecedents
Theoretical foundation Epistemological foundation Pedagogical foundation Sociological foundation Legal frame
Contextual frame Administrative aspect Human talents
Glossary
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY
According with the objectives For its purpose
Types of investigation Levels of the investigation
The procedure of the investigation Instruments of the investigation Methods
Heuristic Scientific Analytical Techniques
Direct Observation Interview
Survey Population Sample Surveys Statistics Conclusions
Recommendations
Analysis of results
CHAPTER 4: THE PROPOSAL
Antecedents Justification
Diagnostic synthesis The fundamental problem
General objectives, Specific objectives Importance, Feasibility
Description of the proposal Application of the proposal Human and economic resources Material
Location
Legal aspect, Sociological aspect
Pedagogical aspect, Psychological aspect Vision, Mission, Policies
THEME: Basic Grammar Teaching Techniques in order to promote the
Elementary English learning
PROPOSAL:Design of a handbook with exercises about Basic English
Grammar
AUTHORS: Vicente Fernando Medina Barreiro
TUTOR: Msc.Alfonso Sánchez Ávila
ABSTRACT
TEMA: Técnicas de enseñanza de gramática básica con el fin de
potenciar el aprendizaje del inglés.
PROPUESTA: Diseño de un manual con ejercicios acerca de la gramática
inglesa básica.
AUTOR: Vicente Fernando Medina Barreiro
TUTOR: Msc.Alfonso Sánchez Ávila
RESUMEN
INTRODUCTION
The present research project is valuable because it contributes to the assimilation of the use of the language in local context, incorporating the new levels of English according to the European framework in the Ecuadorian education. Level A.1.2, Focusing in basic grammar simple tenses about that level in the ninth basic year.
In that Institution there was not any project applied in the field of developing grammar skills in English, which present to me the problem of the students of that institution to understand to solve exercises about Basic English grammar in simple tenses. So they did not have grammar resources to support their class activities and homeworks.The students who had the support of some grammar material like mine, they can learn at the same rhythm like students from private institutions.
Chapter I, specifically details the reality of the problem, focusing on aspects such as research context, research problem, causes, problem formulation, objectives, questions and rationale.
Chapter II, in the theoretical framework develops the background of the study, the foundations; theoretical bases that support the theories focused on the variables and on analysis of the citations.
Chapter III, the methodology is the study of the analysis and discussion of results, types of research, population and sample, methods, techniques and research instruments, conclusions and recommendations.
Chapter IV, the proposal, contains a didactic guide that includes title, rationale, objectives, feasibility, and the description of activities and ways to apply in the learning process.
CHAPTER I
THE PROBLEM
OUTLINE OF THE PROBLEM
CONTEXT OF THE RESEARCH
The scarce Grammar material in English for working the grammar comprehension was the principal cause that origin the low development of written comprehension abilities in “Paraíso de la Flor public high school”, now called 26 de Noviembre public high school, which was causing the boring of the students of ninth grade in English class.
This problem was observed while I was working as an English teacher in the eight year of basic education of this institution located in the North of Guayaquil at Cooperativa “Paraíso de la Flor”.
CONFLICT SITUATION OF THE RESEARCH
I had confirmed the problem of low scholastic yield at “Paraíso de la Flor public high school” in that time. It was because students suffered the lack of some basic knowledge of that subject in the elementary school for that reason it was hard for them to understand the simple grammar tenses in the eight basic year and most of them flunked.
Scientific fact
CAUSES
Students were not interested for the learning English. There was not enough English didactic material. Teacher Activities were not well supported enough.
Difficult exercises according to the new government English book Low economic situation.
CONSEQUENCES
The scholastic accomplishments were low.
A bad grade in the development of the grammar exercises activities. Scarce motivation of the students.
Students did not use English dictionary.
DELIMITATION OF THE PROBLEM
Field: Educative
Area: Foreign language English
Aspect: High School
Topic: Basic grammar teaching techniques in order to
promote the Elementary English learning approach to
Proposal: Design of a handbook with exercises about Basic
FORMULATION OF THE PROBLEM
What is the benefit when we apply some grammar teaching techniques in order to promote the elementary English learning of the students of eighth year “A” and ninth year “A “of Basic education at “Paraíso de la Flor public high school” now called (26 de Noviembre public high school Area 8, District 8 Pascuales of Guayaquil canton,Parroquia Pascuales school year 2013-2014?
VARIABLES
Independent
Application of Basic Grammar Teaching Techniques.
Dependent
When students are motivated they participate through grammar
techniques, they learn faster to promote the elementary English learning.
EVALUATION OF THE PROBLEM
RATIONALE
Clear Why it was clear? The context of this work was
written on understandable grammatically component with easy vocabulary and there will have an additional glossary to help the reading to understand it clear it.
Evident
Why it was evident? It was evident because theproblem concerned to the not liking grammar most of them students flunked. The didactic material that I elaborated became property of the high school in order to help them to solve this problem.
Feasible
I had the support of the students, teachers, parents ofauthorities of the institution allowed me to use the infrastructure.
Relevant
Why it was relevant? It was relevant with theapplication of this proposal I tried to improve the grammar comprehension abilities of the students.
Original
Why it was original? When I looked up the library atthe school of language about this topic. I could notice that was not any work similar to mine. Until this moment, in the institution nobody had investigated about this topic.
Limited
The proposal was applied the 2013 and 2014 yearswith the students of eighth and ninth basic year “A” of the Paraiso de la Flor High School, now called 26 de Noviembre high school.
OBJECTIVES
General
To determine the effects of the design of a handbook with exercises about Basic English grammar. In order to improve some basic English grammar techniques to the students of eighth and ninth basic year “A” at Paraíso de la Flor” Public high school, now called 26 de Noviembre public high school.
Specifics
To diagnose the interest of the students to learn to solve some basic grammar English exercises.
To determine the didactic resources necessities in the Institution. To determine the importance the grammar resources.
To apply some basic grammar teaching techniques.
QUESTIONS OF THE INVESTIGATION
Where is the project going to be performed? Will the problem be able to be solved? Will the goals be fulfilled?What is the importance of grammar resources? What methodologies will be applied in this project? Who will be the beneficiaries?
Will the beneficiaries apply the proposal?
JUSTIFICATION
(RATIONALE)
This project will motivate the students to learn to solve some basic grammar exercises through four English teaching techniques in a funny and easy way through a handbook which will support to them, by improving their self- stream through the implementation of adequate dynamic teaching strategies for the development of linguistic activities of basic Education students according to the A.1.2 level of the European Common framework.
The children of the eighth and ninth course “A” will have the opportunity to use an easy way to learn grammar and they will be the first beneficiaries because the Basic English Grammar Techniques will be taught in a pleasant way, it will permit to improve the motivation and also the English Teacher will work with active students because they will do their classwork and homework easily.
Through this project, students will improve the Basic English grammar competences and the comprehension abilities according to the European common framework. The teacher will have some easy techniques and a handbook to improve the elementary English learning.
This educational project will be executed in the Paraíso de la Flor Public high school”, now called 26 de noviembre Public high school and the execution of the project and the fulfillment of the objectives and purposes; it will reinforce the relationship between all members of the educational community.
CHAPTER II
THE THEORETICAL FRAME
ANTECEDENTS
There are many benefits of the "Handbook “of teaching to solve grammar basic exercises in simple tenses, over the more traditional methods that have been used constantly. The reasons for this are quite simple as it relates to the way children; and even adults; learn in the natural world. Using this work with this technique of teaching grammar in basic tenses helps us to capture the attention and stimulate the imagination of the students.
Teaching grammar in an ESL / EFL setting is quite different from teaching grammar to native speakers. This short guide points to important questions that you should ask yourself to prepare to teach grammar in your own classes.
Compare this to the traditional methods that comparatively seem very two dimensional and you might agree that it is a very beneficial method of teaching the English language.
THEORETICAL FOUNDATION
Grammar
(The study or use of) the rules about how words change their form and combine with other words to make sentences .Source: Cambridge The whole system and structure of a language or of languages in general, usually taken as consisting of syntax and morphology (including inflections) and sometimes also phonology and semantics.
Importance. - Grammar is the backbone of a language and without it any single thing you know may be flux, in a sort of jelly without much consistency. In a nutshell, grammar provides you with the structure you need in order to organize and put your messages and ideas across. It is the railway through which your messages will be transported. Without it, in the same way as a train cannot move without railways, you won’t be able to convey your ideas to their full extension without a good command of the underlying grammar patterns and structures of the language.
Grammar is often misunderstood in the language teaching field. The misconception lies in the view that grammar is a collection of arbitrary rules about static structures in the language. Further questionable claims are that the structures do not have to be thought, learners will acquire them on their own, or if the structures are taught, the lessons that ensue will be boring. This thesis on comparative approach tries to make a brief analysis of necessity of grammar teaching before it gives a relatively objective description of its function and significance in language teaching. It argues that, grammar teaching is necessary in language teaching.
Ecuador are L1 Spanish speakers and there are varying degrees of bilingualism across communities. In keeping with the needs of a linguistically and culturally diverse population, this curriculum presents a rationale and framework for learning English while acknowledging authentic, culturally relevant production and practices in order to facilitate educational inclusion of learners regardless of their L1. This curriculum is built with monolingual and multilingual learners in mind, including those who speak Spanish and those who have little or no Spanish. It aims to support the policy of developing citizens in Ecuador that can communicate effectively in today’s globalized world. The curriculum also supports general educational goals of justice, innovation, and solidarity, by developing thinking, social, and creative skills in the context of language learning. These are the skills Ecuadorian learners will need to engage successfully in local and international communities in the 21st century.
Teaching English language in Ecuador
This study sought to shed light on the relationship between communicative activities and their impact on students ‘motivation to learn English as a Foreign Language (EFL). A total of 180 senior high school learners (86 male and 94female) and 8 EFL teachers in a town of the Amazon region of Ecuador completed a questionnaire. A sample of these students and all of the teachers participated in a face-to-face interview. Both instruments were applied to obtain data concerned with use of communicative activities in the classroom and their relation with motivation. The data gathered was analyzed using a mixed-method approach, comprising quantitative and qualitative methods. Results showed that students and teachers believe that communicative activities are motivating. Furthermore, students feel highly motivated when participating in communicative activities because these enhance their fluency, pronunciation, and performance in the use of English in a realistic and enjoyable way since students are confident when they help each other during interaction in activities.
Teaching and Learning Approach in Ecuador
An approach is a way of looking at teaching and learning. Underlying any language teaching approach is a theoretical view of what language is, and of how it can be learnt. An approach gives rise to methods, the way of teaching something, which use classroom activities or techniques to help learners learn example:
The communicative approach is the best-known current approach to language teaching. Task-based teaching is a methodology associated with it. Other approaches include the cognitive-code approach, and the aural-oral approach (audio lingual method).In the classroom
Task-Based Grammar Learning
One approach to teaching language that has attracted a lot of attention over the past twenty-five years is a task based approach to learning and teaching. In task-based approaches, the focus of classroom activities is on the task, and ultimately on meaning (for more on Task Based Teaching and Learning, see the Methodology section). In Jane Willis’ flexible model for task-based learning, learners begin by carrying out a communicative task, without specific focus on form. After they have done the task, they report and discuss how they accomplished this, perhaps listening to a fluent speaker doing the same task. Only at the end is there a specific focus on features of language form.
The advantage of the task-based approach, according to its advocates, is that during the task the learners are allowed to use whatever language they want, freeing them to focus entirely on the meaning of their message. This makes it closer to a real-life communicative situation.
STRATEGIES FOR LEARNING GRAMMAR
Language teachers and language learners are often frustrated by the disconnect between knowing the rules of grammar and being able to apply those rules automatically in listening, speaking, reading, and writing. This disconnect reflects a separation between declarative knowledge and procedural knowledge.
Declarative knowledge is knowledge about something. Declarative
knowledge enables a student to describe a rule of grammar and apply it in pattern practice drills.
Procedural knowledge is knowledge of how to do something. Procedural
knowledge enables a student to apply a rule of grammar in communication. For example, declarative knowledge is what you have when you read and understand the instructions for programming the DVD player. Procedural knowledge is what you demonstrate when you program the DVD player.
Procedural knowledge does not translate automatically into declarative knowledge; many native speakers can use their language clearly and correctly without being able to state the rules of its grammar. Likewise, declarative knowledge does not translate automatically into procedural knowledge; students may be able to state a grammar rule, but consistently fail to apply the rule when speaking or writing.
1. Relate knowledge needs to learning goals.
Identify the relationship of declarative knowledge and procedural knowledge to student goals for learning the language. Students who plan to use the language exclusively for reading journal articles need to focus more on the declarative knowledge of grammar and discourse structures that will help them understand those texts. Students who plan to live in-country need to focus more on the procedural knowledge that will help them manage day to day oral and written interactions.
2. Apply higher order thinking skills.
Recognize that development of declarative knowledge can accelerate development of procedural knowledge. Teaching students how the language works and giving them opportunities to compare it with other languages they know allows them to draw on critical thinking and analytical skills. These processes can support the development of the innate understanding that characterizes procedural knowledge.
3. Provide plentiful, appropriate language input.
MULTIPLES INTELLIGENCES
1.
NATURALISTIC INTELLIGENCE
2. MUSICAL INTELLIGENCE
3. LOGICAL-MATHEMATICAL INTELLIGENCE
4. EXISTENTIAL INTELLIGENCE
5. INTERPERSONAL INTELLIGENCE
6. BODILY-KINESTHETIC INTELLIGENCE
7. LINGUISTIC INTELLIGENCE
8. INTRA-PERSONAL INTELLIGENCE
LEVEL A.1 OF THE “CEFR”
A1 can understand and use familiar everyday expressions and very basic phrases aimed at the satisfaction of needs of a concrete type. Can introduce him/herself and others and can ask and answer questions about personal details such as where he/she lives, people he/she knows and things he/she has. Can interact in a simple way provided the other person talks slowly and clearly and is prepared to help.
GRAMMAR ENGLISH TEACHING TECHNIQUES
Techniques for Teaching Grammar
The goal of grammar instruction is to enable students to carry out their communication purposes. This goal has three implications:
a) Students need overt instruction that connects grammar points with larger communication contexts.
b) Students do not need to master every aspect of each grammar point, only those that are relevant to the immediate communication task.
c) Error correction is not always the instructor's first responsibility.
Over Grammar Instruction
Adult students appreciate and benefit from direct instruction that allows them to apply critical thinking skills to language learning. Instructors can take advantage of this by providing explanations that give students a descriptive understanding (declarative knowledge) of each point of grammar.
• Teach the grammar point in the target language or the students' first language or both. The goal is to facilitate understanding.
especially for lower level students whose ability to sustain attention can be limited.
• Present grammar points in written and oral ways to address the needs of students with different learning styles.
An important part of grammar instruction is providing examples. Teachers need to plan their examples carefully around two basic principles:
• Be sure the examples are accurate and appropriate. They must present the language appropriately, be culturally appropriate for the setting in which they are used, and be to the point of the lesson.
• Use the examples as teaching tools. Focus examples on a particular theme or topic so that students have more contact with specific information and vocabulary.
Relevance of Grammar Instruction
In the communicative competence model, the purpose of learning grammar is to learn the language of which the grammar is a part. Instructors therefore teach grammar forms and structures in relation to meaning and use for the specific communication tasks that students need to complete.
Traditional: grammar for grammar's sake
• Teach the regular -ed form with its two pronunciation variants
• Teach the doubling rule for verbs that end in d (for example, wed-wedded)
• Hand out a list of irregular verbs that students must memorize
• Do pattern practice drills for -ed
• Do substitution drills for irregular verbs
Communicative competence: grammar for communication's sake
• Distribute two short narratives about recent experiences or events, each one to half of the class
• Teach the regular -ed form, using verbs that occur in the texts as examples. Teach the pronunciation and doubling rules if those forms occur in the texts.
• Teach the irregular verbs that occur in the texts.
• Students read the narratives, ask questions.
Error Correction
At all proficiency levels, learners produce language that is not exactly the language used by native speakers. Some of the differences are grammatical, while others involve vocabulary selection and mistakes in the selection of language appropriate for different contexts.
making errors so that they can work on improving. Teachers also need to build students' confidence in their ability to use the language by focusing on the content of their communication rather than the grammatical form. Teachers can use error correction to support language acquisition, and avoid using it in ways that undermine students' desire to communicate in the language, by taking cues from context.
• When students are doing structured output activities that focus on
• When students are engaged in communicative activities, correct errors only if they interfere with comprehensibility. Respond using correct forms, but without stressing them.
.ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT (Z.P.D)
Lev Vygotsky views interaction with peers as an effective way of developing skills and strategies. He suggests that teachers use cooperative learning exercises where less competent children develop with help from more skillful peers - within the zone of proximal development.
STRATEGIES TO TEACH GRAMMAR IN SIMPLE TENSES
Bilingualism
Bilingualism provides a perspective on linguistic and cultural diversity. The value of becoming bilingual or multilingual extends to intercultural communication and confers the ability to make peace.
Learning is a process of organic growth, and each person has a unique developmental path. The goal was therefore identified as bilingual functioning to a useful extent according to the needs of the individual. This paper shows how bilingualism clarifies the effectiveness of language teaching approaches, bilingual development at different ages, the viewpoint of students, the societal context of language teaching, and language acquisition.
Types of Language Acquisition
counteract the common assumption that one language is primary. Thus the idea of two native languages is presented here to describe bilingual acquisition in a way that does not privilege one language over the other. Even if the two languages are not balanced, there can be two native languages if there is enough input in both languages during the period of innate aptitude for native language acquisition from age zero to three or, given enough input and interaction, possibly later.
CODE SWITCHING GRAMMAR STRATEGIES
BILINGUALISM IN ECUADOR
Bilingualism is highly valued in Ecuador. There is no doubt about that. That being said, I have been trying to understand how Spanish and English work here. All of the private schools I have visited promote becoming bilingual. The public schools, from what I have heard, also promote bilingualism, but at a completely different level. Here’s the interesting observation I have made. Rarely, if ever, do I hear locals speaking English. In fact, I sense a level of discomfort interacting in English. It’s as if English is a tool with a certain purpose. The purpose being several ones: travel, business, or to speak with someone from another country.
There is English everywhere we go. You will see it as the name of business, like Sweet & Coffee. Though I think it should read: Sweets & Coffee. Which leads me to my next observation. Sometimes the translations are off like a store in the mall advertising: joyas de boda. In English they wrote, marge jewelry. Huge mistake.
All in all, our experience as a bilingual family in Ecuador has been amazing. I look forward to sharing more about those experiences in future posts as well. Our daughter has certainly improved how to associate people with language. She switches between Spanish and English almost flawlessly. I think we are on track in raising a prolific code switcher and someone who is proud to know more than one language. Just the other day she said, “En Austin hablamos español y in Ecuador we speak English!”
Elementary English Learning
Learning is acquiring new or changing existing knowledge, behaviors, skills, values, or preferences and may involve synthesizing different types of information. The ability to learn is possessed by humans, animals and some machines.
Human learning may occur as part of education, personal development, or training. It may be goal-oriented and may be aided by motivation. The study of how learning occurs is part of neuropsychology, educational psychology, learning theory, and pedagogy.
TYPES OF LEARNING
Students learn using different methods.
People take in and process information in different ways. A learning style is the method a person uses to learn. By knowing a student's learning style, a teacher can use teaching methods that maximize student learning. Students can use recognition of their individual learning styles to find what study methods, environment, and activities help them learn best.
Students working together
Visual Learning Style
Visual learners like silent reading.
The visual or spatial learning style is preferred by students who like to use pictures, maps, colors and images to organize and communicate information to others. Students who use the visual learning style usually have a good sense of direction and enjoy drawing and doodling. They learn best using flash cards, written instructions, graphics, computer assisted learning, sight words and silent reading.
Auditory Learning Style
Teacher reading a story
Tactile Learning Style
Little girl with painting
The tactile learning style is often grouped with the kinesthetic learning style, but it is more moderate. Students who use the tactile learning style learn by touching and moving objects. Also called hands-on learning, tactile learning involves learning by doing. Tactile learners like to write directions and practice following them. They learn best from demonstrations, drawing, writing, tracing and building models.
Kinesthetic Learning Style
Students who use the kinesthetic learning style like to use their whole body to learn. They express themselves through movement. They use large hand gestures when talking and use body language to communicate. They need to actively explore the physical world around them. Kinesthetic learners use their bodies and sense of touch to learn. They have a good sense of balance and good eye-hand coordination. They learn by getting their hands on objects, taking them apart, and putting them together. They enjoy making models, working
Epistemology asks questions like: "What is knowledge?", "How is knowledge acquired?", "What do people know?", "What are the necessary and sufficient conditions of knowledge?", "What is its structure, and what are its limits?", "What makes justified beliefs justified?", "How we are to understand the concept of justification?", "Is justification internal or external to one's own mind?"
The kind of knowledge usually discussed in Epistemology is propositional
knowledge, "knowledge-that" as opposed to "knowledge-how" (for
Knowledge
Acquaintance with facts, truths, or principles, as from study orinvestigation; general erudition:
Knowledge of many things
Familiarity or conversance, as with a particular subject or branch oflearnin g
A knowledge of accounting was necessary for the job.
Acquaintance or familiarity gained by sight, experience, or report: A knowledge of human nature.
The fact or state of knowing; the perception of fact or truth; clear andcertai n mental apprehension.
Awareness, as of a fact or circumstance: He had knowledge of her good fortune.
Something that is or may be known; information: He sought knowledge of her activities.
The body of truths or facts accumulated in the course of time.
Types of Knowledges:
What follows is a master list (although, of course, it won’t be agreed upon) of the different types of knowledge and theories of knowledge that are out there. Turn this new-found “knowledge” on yourself with this awesome class on how to take inventory of yourself and gain authentic self-knowledge.
1. A Priori
A priori and a posteriori are two of the original terms in epistemology (the study of knowledge). A priori literally means “from before” or “from earlier.”
This is because a priori knowledge depends upon what a person can derive from the world without needing to experience it. This is better known as reasoning. Of course, a degree of experience is necessary upon which a priori knowledge can take shape.
Let’s look at an example. If you were in a closed room with no windows and someone asked you what the weather was like, you would not be able to answer them with any degree of truth. If you did, then you certainly would not be in possession of a prior knowledge. It would simply be impossible to use reasoning to produce a knowledgeable answer.
in philosophy is that it is acquired through the five senses) and then using logic and reflection to derive understanding from it. In philosophy, this term is sometimes used interchangeably with empirical knowledge, which is knowledge based on observation.
It is believed that a priori knowledge is more reliable than a posteriori knowledge. This might seem counter-intuitive, since in the former case someone can just sit inside of a room and base their knowledge on factual evidence while in the latter case someone is having real experiences in the world. But the problem lies in this very fact: everyone’s experiences are subjective and open to interpretation. This is a very complex subject and you might find it illuminating to read this post on knowledge issues and how to identify and use them. A mathematical equation, on the other hand, is law.
3. Explicit Knowledge
4. Tacit Knowledge
I should note that tacit knowledge is a relatively new theory introduced only as recently as the 1950s. Whereas explicit knowledge is very easy to communicate and transfer from one individual to another, tacit knowledge is precisely the opposite. It is extremely difficult, if not impossible, to communicate tacit knowledge through any medium.
For example, the textbook on the founding of America can teach facts (or things we believe to be facts), but someone who is an expert musician cannot truly communicate their knowledge; in other words, they cannot tell someone how to play the instrument and the person will immediately possess that knowledge. That knowledge must be acquired to a degree that goes far, far beyond theory. In this sense, tacit knowledge would most closely resemble a posteriori knowledge, as it can only be achieved through experience.
5. Propositional Knowledge (also Descriptive or Declarative
Knowledge)
Our last pair of knowledge theories are propositional and non-propositional knowledge, both of which share similarities with some of the other theories already discussed. Propositional knowledge has the oddest definition yet, as it is commonly held that it is knowledge that can literally be expressed in propositions; that is, in declarative sentences (to use its other name) or indicative propositions.
Propositional knowledge is not so different from a priori and explicit knowledge. The key attribute is knowing that something is true. Again, mathematical equations could be an example of propositional knowledge, because it is knowledge of something, as opposed to knowledge of how to do something.
The best example is one that contrasts propositional knowledge with our next form of knowledge, non-propositional or procedural knowledge. Let’s use a textbook/manual/instructional pamphlet that has information on how to program a computer as our example. Propositional knowledge is simply knowing something or having knowledge of something. So if you read and/or memorized the textbook or manual, then you would know the steps on how to program a computer. You could even repeat these steps to someone else in the form of declarative sentences or indicative propositions. However, you may have memorized every word yet have no idea how to actually program a computer. That is where non-propositional or procedural knowledge comes in.
Now might be a good time to brush up on how we learn with this sweet course on how to base goals on what you want to learn in order to exceed your wildest dreams.
6. Non-Propositional Knowledge (also Procedural Knowledge)
be applied to something, such as a problem. Procedural knowledge differs from propositional knowledge in that it is acquired “by doing”; propositional knowledge is acquired by more conservative forms of learning.
One of the defining characteristics of procedural knowledge is that it can be claimed in a court of law. In other words, companies that develop their own procedures or methods can protect them as intellectual property. They can then, of course, be sold, protected, leased, etc.
Procedural knowledge has many advantages. Obviously, hands-on experience is extremely valuable; literally so, as it can be used to obtain employment. We are seeing this today as experience (procedural) is eclipsing education (propositional). Sure, education is great, but experience is what defines what a person is capable of accomplishing. So someone who “knows” how to write code is not nearly as valuable as someone who “writes” or “has written” code. However, some people believe that this is a double-edged sword, as the degree of experience required to become proficient limits us to a relatively narrow field of variety. But nobody can deny the intrinsic and real value of experience. This is often more accurate than propositional knowledge because it is more akin to the scientific method; hypotheses are tested, observation is used, and progress results.
Empiricism
Etymology and usage
According to (Sini, Carlo. "Empirismo" in Enciclopedia Garzanti della Filosofia (ed.) Gianni Vattimo et al. 2004), “it derives from the Greek word
It is a philosophical doctrine that all knowledge comes from experience. For most empiricists, experience includes inner experience-reflection upon the mind and its operations-as well as sense perception.
This position is opposed to rationalism in that it denies the existence of innate ideas.
According to the empiricist, all ideas come from experience; therefore, knowledge of the physical world can be nothing more than a generalization from particular instances and can never reach more than a high degree of probability.
Most empiricists recognize the existence of at least some a priori truths, e.g., those of mathematics and logic. John Stuart Mill was the first to treat even these as generalizations from experience. Empiricism has been the dominant but not the only tradition in British philosophy. Among its other leading advocates were John Locke, George Berkeley, and David Hume. See also logical positivism.
Empiricism emphasizes the role of experience and evidence, especially sensor perception, in the making of ideas, over the notion of innate ideas or tradition in contrast to, for example, rationalism which relies upon reason and can incorporate innate knowledge.
Logical Positivism
Some of the key figures in this movement were Otto Neurath, Moritz Schlick and the rest of the Vienna Circle, along with A.J. Ayer, Rudolf Carnap and Hans Reichenbach. The neopositivists subscribed to a notion of philosophy as the conceptual clarification of the methods, insights and discoveries of the sciences.
They saw in the logical symbolism elaborated by Frege (d. 1925) and Bertrand Russell (1872–1970) a powerful instrument that might rationally reconstruct all scientific talking into an ideal, logically perfect, language that would be free of the ambiguities and deformations of natural language.
This gave rise to what they saw as metaphysical pseudo troubles and other conceptual confusions. By combining Frege's thesis that all mathematical truths are logical with the early Wittgenstein's idea that all logical truths are simple linguistic tautologies, they came at a twofold classification of all propositions: the analytic (a priori) and the synthetic (a posteriori). On this basis, they formulated a strong principle of demarcation between sentences that have sense and those that do not: the so-called verification principle.
Any statement that is not purely logical, or is unverifiable is devoid of meaning. As a consequence, most metaphysical, ethical, aesthetic and other traditional philosophical troubles arrived to be considered pseudo troubles.
In later years, Carnap and Neurath left this sort of phenomenalism in favor of a rational reconstruction of knowledge into the language of an objective spatio-temporal physics.
That is, instead of translating sentences about physical objects into sense-data, such sentences were to be translated into so-called protocol sentences, for example, "X at location Y and at time T observes such and such."
The central theses of logical positivism (verificationism, the analytic-synthetic distinction, reductionism, etc.) came under sharp attack after World War 2 by thinkers such as Nelson Goodman, W.V. Quine, Hilary Putnam, Karl Poppr, and Richard Rorty.
By the late 1960s, it had become evident to most philosophers that the movement had pretty much run its course, though its influence is still significant among contemporary analytic philosophers such as Michael Dummett and other anti-realists.
Pragmatism
Pragmatism as a philosophical movement began in the United States in the 1870s. Its overall direction was determined by the thought and works of Charles Sanders Peirce (pronounced / like "purse"), William James, and Chauncey Wright (members of The Metaphysics Club) as well as John Dewey and George Herbert Mead.
The first use in print of the name pragmatism was in 1898 by James, who credited Peirce with having coined the term during the early 1870s.
Pragmatism is to low “the truth to the useful" denying the theoretical knowledge in changing levels, for the most radical is true that only leads to individual success, while for others it is only true when it is satisfied with the facts.
In general, for the various ways of pragmatism, the truth lies in the usefulness and success, therefore, all knowledge is useful if used for something, whether it is possible to achieve.
James developed a philosophical epistemology that believed it was sophisticated enough to make a competition the supremacy of scientific materialism. The basis of this criticism, and thus the logical outcome of his study of British empiricism and the pragmatism of CS Peirce, was his metaphysics of radical empiricism. James's approach was empirical, he said, because it singled out only the facts of experience. It was radical; however, that science is not required to ignore any aspect of reality that could actually be experienced.
According to the book (Democracy and Education, pg. 25 by Dewey, 1899) argued that “children arrive at school as passive clean slate in which teachers could write the lessons of civilization. When the child reaches the classroom, and is strong, active mind and the role of education is to take over and direct this activity”.
When the child starts school, carries with it four "-the innate impulse to communicate, to build, to investigate and to express more precisely" - that are "natural resources, capital to invest, which exercise depends on the active growth of the child "(Dewey, 1899, pg. 30). The child also brings interests and activities of your home and living environment and the teacher's task to use this "raw material" to guide efforts to "positive results"
Materialism
It is useful to begin with some background on the terms "dialectical" and "materialism" to help students to understand the schools of thought from which this philosophy emerged. To explain materialism, ask students whether they believe in concepts like a "soul" or "spirit," or if they believe that everything is made of matter.
Explain to them that the philosophical concept of materialism states that everything, including human consciousness, is made of matter.
Dialectics
Demonstrating the dialectic can be turned into a much more interactive activity for students. Divide the students into groups. Prepare examples of theses and antitheses and assign one to each group. These can be as simple as opposite phrases, or entire sentences.
For example, a group can have a thesis like "Complete anarchy" and a thesis like "Police state." Have each group debate the benefits and shortcomings of each, and try to arrive at a synthesis of the two, with some of the positive aspects of each.
Constructivism Theory
Formalization of the theory of constructivism is generally attributed to Jean Piaget, who articulated mechanisms by which knowledge is internalized by learners. He adviced that through processes of accommodation and
Accommodation can be understood as the mechanism by which failure leads to learning: when we act on the expectation that the world operates in one form and it violates our expectations, we often fail, but by accommodating this new experience and reframing our model of the way the world works, we learn from the experience of failure, or others' failure. The constructivism learning theory give a definition that people produce knowledge and form meaning based upon their experiences. Two of the key concepts within the constructivism learning theory which create the construction of an individual's new knowledge are accommodation and assimilation.
Assimilating causes an individual to incorporate new experiences into the old experiences. This causes the individual to develop new outlooks, rethink what were once misunderstandings, and qualify what is important, ultimately altering their perceptions.
Accommodation, on the other hand, is reframing the world and new experiences into the mental capacity already present. Individuals conceive a particular fashion in which the world operates.
Constructivism in Education
The job of teachers is very important within the constructivism learning theory. Instead of giving a reading the teachers in this theory function as facilitators whose role is to help the student when it comes to their own understanding.
asking. Instead of answering questions that only align with their curriculum, the facilitator in this case must make it so that the student comes to the conclusions on their own instead of being told.
Also, teachers are continually in conversation with the students, creating the learning experience that is open to new directions depending upon the needs of the student as the learning progresses.
Teachers following Piaget's theory of constructivism must challenge the student by making them effective critical thinkers and not being merely a "teacher" but also a mentor, a consultant, and a coach.
Constructivism in the classroom
Learning theory of constructivism incorporates a learning process where in the student gains their own conclusions through the creative help of the teacher as a guide.
The best way to plan teacher worksheets, lesson plans, and study skills for the students, is to create a curriculum which allows each student to solve problems while the teacher monitors and flexibly guides the students to the correct answer, while encouraging critical thinking.
Instead of having the students relying on someone else's information and accepting it as truth, the students should be exposed to data, primary sources, and the ability to interact with other students so that they can learn from the incorporation of their experiences.
The classroom experience should be an invitation for a myriad of different backgrounds and the learning experience which allows the different backgrounds to come together and look and synthetize information and ideas.
place with a daily journal helps the students to better understand how their own experiences contribute to the formation of their theories and observational notes, and then comparing them to another students' reiterates that different backgrounds and cultures create different outlooks, while neither is wrong, both should be respected.
Some strategies for classroom applications of constructivism for the teacher include having students working together and aiding to answer one another's questions.
Another strategy includes designating one student as the "expert" on a subject and having them teach the class.
Finally, allowing students to work in groups or pairs and research controversial topics which they must then present to the class.
PEDAGOGICAL FOUNDATION
Definition
Pedagogy literally means the art and science of educating children and often is used as a synonym for teaching.
Theories
Development theory
The Piaget development theory has made a lasting impression on pedagogical studies, with some nowadays researchers and teachers continuing to use the theory of the famous Swiss psychologist in today's world. Jean Piaget worked tirelessly at studying the workings of a child's brain, and the outcomes he reached from this effort were quite remarkable, as we are about to see.
It was only after a number of years devoted to studying the workings of the child's brain through intensive observations that the Piaget development theory began to form. Jean worked alongside young persons to determine the right changes they went through during maturity, and it was from this that he noted the changes in cognitive structure at different stages in one's childhood.
Sensor motor applies to 0 to 2 year olds, preparation to 3 to 7 year olds, concrete operation to 8-11 year olds, and formal operation to those aged 12 to 15. During the first stage, basic subconscious actions can be made, before conscious requests for food and attention become known. All of these things should be done on an almost subconscious grade by the age of 2.
Piaget stated that there are some things a child cannot learn under certain conditions until they reach a particular age. He implied that no matter how much a young person tried in obtaining new knowledge, this would not be humanely possible in specific circumstances purely due to the fact that their brain wasn't ready to go through the next routine change.
Combined, these ideas are what Piaget's developmental theory is constructed around. There are other concepts that slot into his psychological research, including classification, accommodation and assimilation, but these have little influence on the overall meaning.
The theory has been used as a guide for how the curriculum should be constructed to connect the needs of students from certain age groups, but some people are not happy about this. These individuals feel that Piaget's guidelines are too strict - a claim supported by the sheer number children who achieve certain things considerably earlier or later than the Swiss psychologist suggests is the norm. Opponents of the theory continue by suggesting that Jean's ideas don't take into account the work of other people in helping young people to learn.
Conclusively, the debate over whether Piaget's developmental theory has a place in nowadays society looks set to continue. However, what we know for sure is that it has already had a big influence on the ideas behind pedagogy.
Personal Conclusion
The need to resolve this issue is obvious, but we realize that it will be a challenge to obtain our handbook applied. As teachers we must always look for new strategies, methods and techniques for getting the best results possible to reach our goals and improve learning for our students. With a lack of motivation it is especially challenging for the teacher to keep students stimulated to learn. Although learning behavior in a general sense is similar for all, individual students have different abilities to stay focused. Lack of focus has a very detrimental effect on the student’s ability to learn, causing many students to feel inadequate and incapable of learning quickly.
Studying Piaget's theory of cognitive development has taught us much about the science behind learning and education. Jean Piaget focused on what he coined as accommodation and assimilation. Assimilation describes how we perceive and adapt to new information. Taking in new information and fitting it into pre-existing cognitive knowledge. This occurs when we are faced with new or unfamiliar information and refer to previously learned knowledge to make sense of it.
Alternately, accommodation is the process of taking our environment and new information, and altering our pre-existing knowledge to make it fit the new information.
Assimilation is essentially a person’s own perspective of an issue based on current knowledge that anchors all other perspectives. Stimuli that pertains to that perspective anchor will always assimilate or be learned easier, while stimuli further from one's perspective anchor takes more time to assimilate, hence takes longer to learn.
SOCIOLOGICAL FOUNDATION
Definition
Sociology enables us to comprehend the structure and dynamics of society, and their intricate connections to patterns of human behavior and individual life changes.
It examines the ways in which the forms of social structure -- groups, organizations, communities, social categories (such as class, sex, age, or race), and various social institutions (such as kinship, economic, political, or religious) affect human attitudes, actions, and opportunities.
The discipline also explores how both individuals and collectivities construct, maintain, and alter social organization in various ways.
Sociology asks about the sources and consequences of change in social arrangements and institutions, and about the satisfactions and difficulties of planning, accomplishing, and adapting to such change.
Areas studied in examining social dynamics include: culture, values, socialization, cooperation, conflict, power, exchange, inequality, deviance, social control, violence, order and social change.
Educational Psychology
According to the book (Methods of Teaching Educational Psychology by T. Shankar, 2007), “it is the study of how humans learn in educational settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the social psychology of schools as organizations”.
Although the terms "educational psychology" and "school psychology" are often used interchangeably, researchers and theorists are likely to be recognize in the US and Canada as educational psychologists whereas practitioners in schools or school-related settings are recognized as school psychologists. This distinction is however not made in the UK, where the generic term for practitioners is "educational psychologist."
Educational psychology can in part be understood through its relationship with other sciences. It is informed primarily by psychology, bearing a relationship to that discipline analogous to the relationship between medicine and biology.
Educational psychology in turn informs a wide range of specialties within educational studies, including instructional design, educational technology, curriculum development, organizational learning, special education and classroom management.
Educational psychology both draws from and contributes to cognitive science and the learning sciences. In universities, departments of educational psychology are usually housed within faculties of education, possibly accounting for the lack of representation of educational psychology content in introductory psychology textbooks
Social Constructivism
LEGAL FRAME
The regulation for the design and execution of my educational project was approved at the meeting on October 11th, 2012. The director council decided that the educational projects can be carried out up to for two people who belong to the Faculty.
CONTEXTUAL FRAME
My project work will be carried out at Paraíso de la Flor Public School in Paraíso de la Flor in a marginal urban zone of the city and it is led by a Chairwoman.
This school has one floor building and have been reformed with concrete and metal structure , there are five classrooms, directory’s room office a bathroom, a small bar, a big yard decorated with plants in addition a second floor where are five classrooms and a teacher´s room.
ADMINISTRATIVE ASPECT:
GLOSSARY
Learning: Active participation in the learning process through group
discussion, cooperative learning, independent studies, etc.
Pedagogy: Instructional activities and assessments (teaching art) that
requires students to achieve high standards of intellectual quality.
Dialectics is the science of the general and abstract laws of the development of nature, society, and thought
Communication: The act of communicating; the exchange of thoughts,
messages, or information, as by speech, signals, writing, or behavior.
Cognitive: Thought processes that reflect thinking, watching, and
experimenting.
Cognition: The portion of human experience comprising thought,
knowledge, belief, and inference.
Concept: Any abstract notion or idea by virtue of which we apply general
terms to things.
Effective learning: A process which demonstrates that learners are
autonomous when they are motivated.
Emotivism: The meta-ethical theory according to which the meaning of
moral language is exhausted by its expression, evocation, or endorsement of powerful human feelings.
Knowledge: Information, understanding and skills you have gained
through learning or experience.
Paradigm: An exemplary instance or model; hence, also, a set of
Philosophy: Literally, love of wisdom. Hence, careful thought about the fundamental nature of the world, the grounds for human knowledge, and the evaluation of human conduct.
Pragmatism: An indigenous American philosophical theory that explains
both meaning and truth in terms of the application of ideas or beliefs to the performance of actions that have observable practical outcomes, Intuition, or by means of a process of inference.
Skill: Proficiency, facility, or dexterity that is acquired or developed
through training or experience. Listening, speaking, reading and writing are skills in English.
Strategy: Language learning activities that student does in class.
Technique: The systematic procedure by which a complex or scientific
task is accomplished.
Theoretical definition: A proposal for understanding the meaning of a
term in relation to a set of scientifically useful hypotheses.
Understanding: The human capacity for comprehending the nature of
reality
Language: It is considered to be a system of communicating with other
people using sound, symbols and words in expressing a meaning idea or though.
Development: the act of developing or disclosing that which is unknown.
Encourage: to inspire with hope, courage or confidence, hearten, to give
CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY
MODALITY OF THE INVESTIGATION
According to the objectives this Project was designed according the necessity of Institution since it focused to the place where it had been developed in the Paraíso de la Flor Public School.
The object consists in to improve education in a determinate place.
It is exploratory and descriptive for its application and It also is feasible because have the support to the charmer and Family´s parents.
TYPES OF THE INVESTIGATION
For its purpose is necessary an action investigation because attend to solve a real problem
For its application is feasible, because there is the help and the support of the authorities
For its nature is exploratory and descriptive.
LEVELS OF THE INVESTIGATION
The first level was exploratory because I had noticed the there was a problem and I did preference with the investigation phenomenal.
The third level was explanatory because I developed the scientific knowledge then I did an analyze causes and consequences to the problem.
PROCEDURE OF THE INVESTIGATION
The mechanism to be used in this investigation was following: Formulation of the problem
Elaboration of the theoretical frame The design of the Investigation Problem Application of the Instruments
Analyses and Interpretation of Results Conclusion and recommendations
INSTRUMENTS OF INVESTIGATIONS
METHODS
Observation
This method was used to identify the problem I had to talk with the directives and teachers and so search solution to the problem since that I had observed that there were not resources for encouraging to the students to the learning English.
Inductive
Inductive learning encourages the learner to “find” the answers/learning/understanding on their own Inductive is known as a 'bottom up' approach. In other words it has the following stages:
Deductive
Deductive is known as a 'top down' approach whereas Deductive learning presents the information, answers, learning for the learner.
Heuristic
When teacher encourages students to understand before posting, implying justification or foundation theoretical and logic and can be submitted by the teacher or researched by the student.
Itinerant
To our investigation we had to visit a many places like cyber especially University’s Library, where we find it.
Scientific
By process or "scientific method" means those practices used by the scientific community as valid when proceeding to explain and confirm their theories. Scientific theories, designed to somehow explain the phenomenon we observe, they can support or not in experiments to certify its validity.
Analytical
This method involves the analysis (decomposition), this is the separation of a tone in parts or in it is an established element. It relies on knowledge of something that must be divided into its parts.
Synthetic
Techniques
Definition
According to (Sanchez, 2014), “it is a tool to develop the investigation that
it is used for all activity”. The techniques were used in this investigation are: Survey, interview, questionnaire.
Questionnaire
Definition
According to (the Britain Encyclopaedia Company Merriam Webster, 2013), “It is to ask (many people) a question or a series of questions in
order to gather information about what most people do or think about something”.
It is a technical tool used for the survey and the interview. For the survey is called survey quiz and for the interview is recognized interview guide.
Interview
Definition
It is one of the most used techniques in research. By means of this a person (interviewer) it request information from others (interview).
The interview is going to be applied to the chairwoman and the English teacher.
Sampling
Definition
