Environmental concern as a moderator of information processing: A fMRI study

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Journal of Cleaner Production 369 (2022) 133306

Available online 5 August 2022

Environmental concern as a moderator of information processing: A fMRI study

Diego G´omez-Carmona

^a^,^b^,^*

, Pedro Pablo Marín-Due˜nas

^a^,^b

, Rafael Cano Tenorio

^a^,^b

, C´esar Serrano Domínguez

^a^,^b

, Francisco Mu˜noz-Leiva

^c

, Francisco J. Li´ebana-Cabanillas

^c

aFaculty of Social Science and of the Communication, University Campus, Jerez de la Frontera, 11406, C´adiz, Spain

bInstituto Universitario de Investigaci´on para el Desarrollo Social Sostenible (INDESS), Cadiz University, Spain

cFaculty of Economics and Business Studies, University campus, La Cartuja, s/n, 18071, Granada, Spain

A R T I C L E I N F O Handling Editor: Mingzhou Jin Keywords:

Neuromarketing Valence

Environmental concern Persuasion

A B S T R A C T

The psychological processes that predict behaviour can be influenced by the approaches taken in environmental awareness messages. The persuasiveness generated by different approaches depends on the environmental concern of viewers. The study identifies brain regions active while processing positive advertisements. It also studies brain activity in subjects with high (vs low) environmental concern while processing positive ads. In addition, it relates the brain activity evoked in response to positive ads which predicts more significant attitudes toward the ads, in subjects with great environmental concern. The results indicate that positive messages activate regions linked to self-value and societal benefit in those subjects who are more concerned. We found a stronger effect in regions linked to an emotional response in viewers with greater environmental concern. The identified emotional response may precede higher attitudinal ratings.

1. Introduction

In recent years, several studies have examined the effect of advertisements on cognition, emotions and behaviour. Generally, these papers analyzed viewers’ responses using self-report techniques and provided useful but limited information. The inability of viewers to put their internal processes into words is one of the most common limitations of traditional research techniques. Marketers need to understand these neural processes because they reveal the influence of different elements used in advertisements, help predict viewer responses, and are important indicators of advertising effectiveness (Pham et al., 2013).

Previous neuroimaging research has analyzed the effectiveness of some message elements, such as voice and time horizon in the environmental context. This research suggested that environmental messages are more effective when delivered by a young male and refer to the future; these elements enhance the subjective value and preference for green ads (Casado-Aranda et al., 2018).

Previous studies have also analyzed different combinations of elements with varied results (Vezich et al., 2017). However, the develop- ment of optimal messages remains a challenge. To fill this research gap

and advance knowledge and understanding of cognitive and affective mechanisms while processing environmental content messages. This study analyzes the brain response to positive appeals in subjects with higher and lower environmental concerns since different authors suggest that environmental concern may be a moderating factor in information processing (G´omez-Carmona et al., 2021; Chang et al., 2015). To date, no work has analyzed in depth the effects of positive valence messages in subjects who have different levels of concern for the environment. Knowing the brain’s response to these environmental messages may improve the impact of advertising, help design more effective communication campaigns, and better understand the impact of advertising. In addition, exploring moderating factors such as environmental awareness can help explain the persuasiveness of an advertisement across different audiences (Jones et al., 2017). In the present study, based on prospect theory, we examine whether messages using positive valence are differentially effective (Tversky and Kahneman, 1981).

Furthermore, we propose that environmental concern is an important moderating variable of the persuasion generated by message elements (Matthes et al., 2014).

Thus, the main objectives of the present study are a) To analyze the

* Corresponding author. Faculty of Social Science and of the Communication, University Campus, Jerez de la Frontera, 11406, C´adiz, Spain.

E-mail addresses: [email protected] (D. G´omez-Carmona), [email protected] (P.P. Marín-Due˜nas), [email protected] (R.C. Tenorio), cesar.

[email protected] (C.S. Domínguez), [email protected] (F. Mu˜noz-Leiva), [email protected] (F.J. Li´ebana-Cabanillas).

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Cleaner Production

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.133306

Received 23 February 2022; Received in revised form 6 July 2022; Accepted 22 July 2022

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efficacy of the message approach by exploring the neural correlates during the processing of positively valenced advertisements; b) To test the moderating effect of environmental concern on the processing of positively valenced messages in the brain regions highlighted in the literature; c) To analyze the brain region that anticipates higher attitudes towards the advertisement.

This paper shows a procedure for evaluating environmental advertising effectiveness using consumer neuroscience. The research advanced the scientific field by identifying those brain regions that determine effectiveness in subjects more and less concerned about the environment. Knowing the regions that anticipate advertising effectiveness will allow the design of communication campaigns that improve the awareness of those less concerned about the environment and encourage the consumption of environmentally responsible products.

2. Theoretical framework 2.1. Message approach

Research on advertising effectiveness suggests that persuasion occurs, in part, due to self-value integration (Falk and Scholz, 2018). That is, consumers adopt the proposed behaviour because it is beneficial to them. Value integration occurs at a time prior to adopting the behaviour and can change the viewer’s attitude. This attitude change or persuasion can be achieved by highlighting the value of the proposed behaviour through positive or negative appeals (Vezich et al., 2017) as long as the message is well focused (Casado-Aranda et al., 2017). Research on environmentally responsible product communication has shown that positive messages are more effective than those negatively valenced (Martinez-Fiestas et al., 2015; Casado-Aranda et al., 2017). Neurosci- entific knowledge on consumer response to pleasant advertisements, the literature has shown that effective manipulation of valence generates activity in the emotional system. Specifically, several studies have shown increased activity in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) while processing pleasant personal and social information (Casado-Aranda et al., 2017; Menon and Uddin, 2010). This region is also activated when third parties are likely to obtain a reward, leading to the belief that it is an area related to social empathy (Lockwood et al., 2015). Positive messages typically show the social benefits of purchasing environmentally friendly products (Martinez-Fiestas et al., 2015), such as buying green or renewable energy products. Simply thinking about performing behaviours that are beneficial both to oneself and others can activate the ACC, a region linked to personal value processing, positive future aspirations, and encoding environmental benefits (Casado-Aranda et al., 2017).

2.2. Environmental concern; individual differences in information processing

Most research has defined environmental concern as an attitude focused on the cognitive and affective evaluation of environmental protection (Dunlap and Van Liere, 1978; Weigel and Weigel, 1978). This attitude engages consumers in the environmental challenge and moti- vates them to perform behaviors that safeguard the environment (Higueras-Castillo et al., 2019; Matthes et al., 2014). Some authors have suggested that, in certain contexts, environmental concern may moderate behavior (Amatulli et al., 2017; Bamberg, 2003). Specifically, previous literature on persuasion has suggested that environmental concern is a moderating factor influencing individual responses to advertising messages (Matthes et al., 2014; Schmuck et al., 2018).

The ability to process information depends on the subject’s concerns.

Petty and Cacioppo (1986) demonstrate the above statement in their Petty and Cacioppo (1986) Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM), in which the authors show how attitudes are formed and change as a function of the viewer’s concerns and ability to process information. The

two processing pathways presented in the model are: central route and peripheral route. The central route generates persuasion when consumers are motivated and cognitively process the message’s arguments in depth, and the quality of the content’s strength determines beliefs and attitudes. In contrast, consumers who process through the peripheral route care relatively little about the arguments and only assimilate statements that are easy for them to understand. Thus, there is a higher level of cognitive processing in the central route and a lower level in the peripheral route (Petty & Cacioppo, 1986).

For example, in the case of products such as REs, which are high involvement, message designers could use arguments (described verbatim) that make the attributes of savings and efficiency stand out:

thus, consumers will use the central route (Kesler-West et al., 2001;

Schiffman and Kanuk, 2005). In contrast, when consumers lack suffi- cient motivation or ability, they process communications through the peripheral route: they do not process information cognitively, but through cues such as music or images (Kesler-West et al., 2001; Petty and Cacioppo, 1986), or with the presentation of visual and symbolic advertisements (Schiffman and Kanuk, 2005).

It stands to reason that subjects with high (vs. low) environmental concern will be motivated by environmental messages and seek new information (Adcock et al., 2006). In addition, environmental concern is a cognitive filter when evaluating advertisements, indicating differences in neural processing (Weber et al., 2015). These processing differences appear in the amygdala, a region that is part of the motivational system.

The amygdala detects the salience of stimuli, is linked to the evaluation of emotional information (positive and negative), and regulates the dimension of affective responses (Dimoka, 2010; Sabatinelli et al., 2005). Jasinska et al. (2012) demonstrated that, in subjects who wanted to quit smoking, the amygdala response to persuasive messages pro- moted the desired behavior. In addition to the amygdala, another well-documented region in the motivation literature is the insula (Wager and Barrett, 2017; Westen et al., 2006). This region determines whether external and internal stimuli are important or not (Menon and Uddin, 2010), and in the case of subjects with high (vs. low) environmental concern, may elicit greater intensity in feeling during message processing. This increased intensity in feeling may stem from insula activation, and is linked to emotional subjective experiences (Touroutoglou et al., 2012; Wager and Barrett, 2017; Westen et al., 2006). Furthermore, insula activity is linked to general motivational tendencies and specific action plans (Wager and Barrett, 2017), i.e., insula activity can predict desired behavior. Both regions are indicators of motivational engagement of audiences (Anders et al., 2004).

2.3. Message focus and environmental concern

Positive messages often show images of environmentally responsible products (RE or electric cars) that improve society by reducing pollu- tion. Thinking about purchasing these products can trigger attitude change and purchase intention. The mental representation of these goals and intentions activates the vmPFC (Burgess et al., 2007). That is, positively valenced messages influence environmental intentions and behaviors (van de Velde et al., 2010). The vmPFC is associated with receptivity to persuasive messages, predicts behavioral change (Falk, O’Donnell and Lieberman, 2012; Falk et al., 2015), and integrates behavioral relevance and affective reactivity in the evaluation of message value (Dor´e et al., 2019; Falk et al., 2015; Falk and Scholz, 2018).

Thus, ongoing activity in this region contributes to behavioral change.

This change is the result of persuasion, a multifaceted phenomenon in which message content and personal variables combine to influence behavior. In the present study, we focus on two theoretically important determinants of persuasion to extend previous theory and data relevant to brain systems that support persuasion: positive valence and environmental concern. Based on the arguments provided by the literature, we propose:

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H1. Anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) is more activated when viewing positive messages.

H2. The amygdala and insula will be more strongly activated in sub- jects hight (vs low) concerned about the environment.

H3. Participants with high (vs. low) concern for the environment are more engaged with the arguments of advertising messages and register more vmPFC activity.

3. Methodology

The methodological process began with the validation of images, after which some of these images were selected to form part of the experimental design. Once the E-prime software was programmed with the experimental stimuli (image and text) to be used, appointments were made to perform the experiment. On the day of the experiment, participants answered control questions, viewed the experimental stimuli inside the MRI scanner, and then answered a questionnaire. After this, the functional images of the MRI scans were extracted and preprocessed in Matlab SPM software in order to standardize the results. Once the images were preprocessed, the exposure times of each experimental image were inserted, and the hemodynamic rise of the blood at each contrast was analyzed. Finally, the attitude towards the advertisement was included as a covariate, and the activation of the parameter of interest was extracted by correlating this activity with the attitude scores given by self-report (see Fig. 1).

3.1. Data collection and field work

The field work was carried out at the Centre for Research on the Mind, Brain and Behaviour (CIMCYC) at the University of Granada, Spain. The CIMCYC is an international reference in neuroscientific research. In its facilities, it has a 3 T functional magnetic resonance scanner that provides high-resolution image quality. This instrument is the most appropriate for carrying out work on advertising effectiveness from a neuroscience perspective (Casado-Aranda et al., 2017). In addition, the research center is staffed by specialized technical personnel (ray technicians, medical personnel, and psychologists) to carry out studies of these characteristics. In fact, each test performed is examined by a medical professional who analyzes and informs the subject in case of detecting any anomaly.

Participants were recruited through an email sample or by tele- phone. Prior to the fMRI test, subjects completed a screening questionnaire and answered questions about their environmental concerns, socio-economic issues, prior knowledge of renewable energy and medical issues (metal implants, drug consumption, neurological diseases).

The final sample was 25 men and 25 women. In addition to gender, we took into account the average age of the consumer profile of organic products in Spain (43.38 years), so we selected half of the participants

aged 18–43 years and the remaining fifty percent aged 43 years older.

The average monthly income level of the participants was €1350.

Eighty-eight percent of the subjects under study lived in rural areas.

We eliminated from the initial selection those who consumed narcotic substances and others with metal implants in their bodies. We also ensured that the participants had normal vision, were not under medical treatment, and were unaffected by any neurological disease. At the end of the study, they were paid 40 euros each. The participants were asked to arrive 1 h before taking the fMRI tests. During this hour, explanations were provided about the task they were to perform. Each participant gave prior written consent following the World Medical Association Declaration of Helsinki (2013). The fMRI scans were then carried out, recording structural and functional images. While the functional images were being recorded, the participants inside the scanner performed a passive viewing task, that is, they watched advertisements linked to renewable energies. After the task the participants went to an adjoining room to complete questionnaires about their attitude towards the advertisements and their purchase intentions.

3.2. Experimental design

The experimental design was intended to evaluate the effect generated by positive messages about renewable energies. These messages are normally used to encourage environmentally responsible behavior. In addition, the level of environmental concern of the participants is taken into account. For this purpose, the authors developed a mixed design with two a priori manipulated inter-subject factors, positive valence (vs neutral), and two inter-group factors based on levels of concern, high (HC) and low concern (LC). The stimuli were composed of 6 positive and 6 neutral images; 6 descriptions with gain-frame and 6 neutral-frame descriptions. The advertisements show pleasant images and descriptions with positive valence, such as “Energy sources are becoming more advanced and common in the home” (see Fig. 2).

Previously 225 students rated the affective valence of the images using the Self-Assessment Maniki (SAM), with a 9-point scale (see average results in Table 1), and the length of the messages was controlled by the research team (all messages were around 100 characters).

We used a block design, displaying during scans the images and texts.

Three periods of stimulation were performed alternating the order of visualization (image 1+text 1+image 2+text 2; …). The repetition of the message is something that helps to understand the message clearly and therefore increases the ability to process the arguments (Petty et al., 1983); it also causes the activation of neural networks and its conse- quent automation (Benavidez and Flores, 2019), this allows us to obtain more accurate and reliable images of brain activity. After each exposure period, a baseline was included, with a duration of 12 s, formed by a white cross on a white background. The total duration of the experiment was 576 s 3.

Fig. 1. Methodological process flow diagram.

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3.3. Measuring scales

The pretest and post test questionnaires included Likert-type mea- surement scales of semantic differential with five possible answers, 1 (lowest value) and 5 (highest value), and categorical scales were also used. The questionnaire was divided into two parts: The first part was conducted before fMRI scanning and collected information about the individual’s environmental concern, along with socioeconomic ranking questions (pretest questionnaire). The second part of the questionnaire, conducted after viewing the stimuli, asked about the attitude towards each advertisement, using a semantic differential scale under each experimental advertisement (post test questionnaire).

Through self-reporting techniques we record the level of concern of the participants. Specifically using the new environmental paradigm (NEP) scale developed by Dunlap et al. (2000). Fifty-four percent of the sample recorded high values (between 4 and 5), the rest said they were not very concerned about environmental issues. This variation in levels

of concern may indicate that the overall distribution of the construct was appropriate for application as a potential moderator.

After the fMRI session the participants evaluated their attitude towards the advertisements. We used a semantic differential scale that defines the subjects’ attitude towards advertisements (Venkatraman et al., 2015; Casado-Aranda et al., 2017).

The statistical analyses were performed using the IBM version 23 SPSS statistical package.

3.4. Stimulus synchronization and analysis software

Stimulus synchronization, data processing, and subsequent analysis are required using different computer programs, which are detailed below. The exposure of experimental ads was programmed with the help of the synchronization software E-Prime 2.0 (www.pstnet.com). The fMRI data were analyzed using the statistical parametric mapping functions package -SPM v12- (The Wellcome Centre for Human Neuro- imaging, London) integrated into the Matlab 12 numerical computation software (www.fil.ion.ucl.ac.uk/spm/software/spm12).

For the visualization and localization of the active regions in each contrast applied to the functional images, we used the image visualization tool Xjview (www.alivelearn.net/xjview). To delimit the regions of interest (ROI), we used the MarsBar tool (marsbar.sourceforge.net), following the recommendations of Brett et al. (2002). To ascertain the statistical power of the sample, we used the fMRI Power software (http://fMRIpower.org). Finally, the statistical analyses applied to the data coming from SPM were performed using the IBM SPSS statistical package version 23, and some graphs were performed in Microsoft Excel 2016).

Some details and specifications of the preprocessing and the type of analysis performed on the already processed data are specified below.

Fig. 2. Experimental design.

Table 1

Average valence of the images.

N Mean positive valence

(Vp) S.D Mean neutral valence

(Vø) S.D

Image

1 225 6.44 1.18 4.60 1.20

Image

2 225 6.39 1.38 4.12 1.23

Image

3 225 6.90 1.26 4.35 1.12

Image

4 225 6.92 1.21 4.21 1.16

Image

5 225 6.98 1.61 4.03 1.35

Image

6 225 6.30 1.42 4.56 1.41

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3.5. Acquisition and pre-processing of images

Blood oxygen level dependent (BOLD) activity was recorded by functional images acquired using a Siemens Trio 3T scanner. Slices were collected in descending order by applying the following acquisition parameters: TR = 3000 ms, TE = 35 ms, flip angle 90^◦, plane reduction 3 × 3 mm, 3 mm of slice thickness, distance factor 25% with 36 slices, 64 × 64 mm matrix in a field of view of 192 with an axial orientation.

The anatomical T1 image was acquired with a 3D MP RAGE sequence, using a sagittal orientation with a 1 mm × 1 mm x 1 mm voxel size. A total of 387 functional scans were acquired.

MATLAB R2015b statistical parametric mapping software SPM 12 (https://www.fil.ion.ucl.ac.uk/spm/software/spm12/) was used to process and analyze the functional images. Following recommendations in the previous literature we eliminated the first four volumes of each test to rule out the possible effects of magnetic field saturation and allow stabilisation of the BOLD signal. To eliminate the time differences between segment acquisition time and the initial segment that served as a reference, corrections were applied by interpolation. The data of the first functional image were realigned. Subsequently, the functional and structural images were co-registered. The data were then normalised (with 3 x 3 × 3 mm voxels) based on the Montreal Neurological Institute (MNI) cranial template. Finally, the functional images were smoothed with a Gaussian kernel (FWHM = 8 mm).

3.6. fMRI data analysis

The canonical hemodynamic response was modeled according to the following conditions: a high (vs. low) level of environmental concern was considered a between-subjects factor. At the same time, the type of appeal (positive valence and gain frame (PA) vs neutral valence and neutral frame (NA)) was considered a within-subjects factor. The attitude effect was included as a metric covariate. The theoretical model is stated in equation (1):

Yijk =μ +αi +αj +β + Xk +αi ⋅β ⋅ Xk +αj ⋅ β ⋅ Xk +εijk (1) Where Yijk is the value of the activation metric (Blood oxygen level- dependent, Bold signal) for modality i of the appeal, modality j of the environmental concern, and value k of the covariate attitude; α_iis the effect of the condition of the appeal (positive valence and gain frame, valence neutral and neutral frame); α_jis the effect of the level of environmental concern (high/low); β is the effect of attitude, and εijk is the error term or random perturbation.

In addition, the following were included three rotation and three translation parameters, considering the subject’s brain as a rigid body, were included as noise covariates in the general linear model imple- mented in SPM 12. The data were high-pass filtered with a 128 s cutoff.

3.7. Analysis of variance and covariance

At the first level, the following test (PA x HC + PA x LC) was performed on all subjects to analyze main effects when processing adver- tisements with positive appeals. At the second level, a two-sample t-test was performed. This test allows us to identify any significant differences in brain activation between subjects with high (vs. low) environmental concern. To correct for errors caused by multiple comparisons, we adjusted the significance level, with a tighter threshold (FWE p < .05), with group (k) > 10. This was followed by an explanation of the higher attitude towards the announcement in more preoccupied subjects. For this, the activity parameters of the active regions were extracted. These parameters were then correlated with the attitude toward the advertisement.

This analysis may help to predict the neural correlates that anticipate a higher attitude toward the advertisement.

4. Results

4.1. Behavioural outcomes

A Mann-Whitney U test for two independent samples showed sig- nificant differences in attitude toward advertisements (Z = − 3.384; p = .001). Specifically, participants high concern about the environmental gave higher ratings (x = 4.00) to the ads. While participants with low concern rated the advertisements viewed lower (x = 3.41). In line with previous research, our results show that environmental concern is a moderator of persuasion generated by the message approach (Newman et al., 2012; G´omez-Carmona et al., 2021). In addition, it provides complimentary and valuable information about the consumer of environmentally friendly products.

4.2. Analysis fMRI of the whole sample

We performed a one-sample test to verify our first hypothesis. The results (see Fig. 3) showed activity in the participants’ ACCs and superior temporal gyrus (STG) as they watched positive advertisements. The neutral stimuli (vs. positive stimuli), did not present significant activity in other areas, with respect to the inverse contrast.

All subjects register activity in ACC in response to the positive advertisements. These results allow us to confirm H1. This region is activated when environmental messages have a positive valence and show pleasant images about the impact of renewable energies on the environment. Specifically, the findings confirm increased activation in the ACC and STG. In other work, ACC activity occurs when processing emotional events that drive future behavior (Kesler-West et al., 2001;

Cabanillas et al., 2018). ACC is thought to be related to self-worth, processing important personal and social information (Hughes and Beer, 2012; Herwig et al., 2012; Passingham et al., 2010), and reward attainment. The effect of positive images and message rewards could generate hopeful prospects and attainable aspirations in the imagination of subjects (Blair et al., 2013; Spreng et al., 2010). Likewise, showing images where a less polluting society is projected and messages that appeal to environmental responsibility through the consumption of renewable energies can help subjects to make value judgments about their social and moral behavior regarding the environment; in this type of moral reflection, ACC also seems to be involved (FeldmanHall et al., 2012). Fourie et al. (2014) linked the activation of the ACC with conflict situations where subjects feel guilt.

In our case, the syllogistic interpretation of pleasant emotional advertisements activated the STG. At the same time, participants integrated the content of images (positive valence) and texts (final gain state) that guaranteed the best results (Paulus et al., 2004). These results coincide, in part, with those achieved in the work of Takahashi et al.

(2008), where they analyze the neural correlates of pride. It is possible that some of the participants feel proud of performing the behaviors proposed in the advertisements or that they own some of the products shown in the advertisement. Originally, STG activity is linked to social cognition and the processing of socially relevant stimuli (Decety and Gr`ezes, 2006; Gallagher and Frith, 2003). In contrast, STG activity, along with other regions, is also active when processing emotions such as shame and guilt (Takahashi et al., 2004), arousing subjects’ negative self-conscious emotions while processing positive messages.

According to previous research, the ACC and STG joint activity generates conscious emotional coding (Berthoz, 2002; Wagner, N’Diaye, Ethofer and Vuilleumier, 2011).

4.3. Analysis fMRI of environmental concerns

Tests were performed to identify if there were differences between the participants with high (vs. low) concern for the environment as they processed advertisements (see Fig. 4).

The upper part of the figure shows a T-map with a threshold p < .001

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uncorrected for multiple comparisons (T > 6.50) on the mean anatomical image of the participants. A: Middle frontal gyrus; B: Middle frontal gyrus; C:

Superior temporal gyrus; D: Insula; E: Amygdala. The lower part of the figure shows a T-map with a threshold p < .001 uncorrected for multiple com- parisons (T > 6.80) on the mean anatomical image of the participants. A:

calcarine; B: hippocampus; D: inferior parietal. The coordinates of the peaks are given in Table 3.

The results allow us to confirm H2 and H3, which demonstrate sta- tistically significant differences in the insula, amygdala, and vmCPF activity between high (vs low) concern subjects while viewing positive advertisements. Specifically, our findings demonstrate that more concerned subjects activate these regions more strongly. As expected, the analysis among subjects with high (vs. low) environmental concerns showed that positive messages with gain end state (vs. neutral stimuli) activated the insula in this group of participants. These results align with Lindquist et al. (2016), who found activity in the insula when comparing positive versus neutral stimuli. The authors suggest that the insula is related to increased attention, the intensity of feeling, and physiological arousal. In addition, insula activity is related to emotion regulation (Mak et al., 2009) and motivation to perform specific actions (Wager and Barrett, 2017).

The recording of activity in the limbic region, specifically in the amygdala, is in line with the results of Sabatinelli et al. (2005); they suggest that the visualization of pleasant stimuli may indicate the degree of importance that the environment has for these subjects. Just as in the work of Jasinska et al. (2012), subjects who wish to perform the desired behavior activate the amygdala when processing persuasive messages;

in our case, those subjects who are more preoccupied also register activity in this region.

Among subjects with a low (vs. high) concern for the environment, strong activity was found in the brain areas of the occipital cortex, specifically in the calcarine sulcus. This region is linked to endogenous visual attention and mental imagination (Gelder et al., 2015). The current findings show lower attitudes toward positive valence and gain end-state advertisements for subjects with low environmental concern.

Fig. 3. Peak coordinates of brain regions in response to positive messages.

The figure shows a T-map with a threshold p < .001 uncorrected for multiple comparisons (T > 5.80) on the average anatomical image of the participants. A: Superior Temporal Gyrus (STG); B: ACC; C: ACC; D: STG. The coordinates of the peaks are provided in Table 2.

Table 2

Peaks of clusters active in response to positive messages.

Brain region MNI Coordinate Peak (mm) Effect size

H^a x y z Z T z/√n

Positive appeal

Superior temporal gyrus I −48 −14 4 6.14 7.59 0.87

ACC D 2 28 22 5.80 7.00 0.82

ACC D 8 −26 42 5.09 5.88 0.72

Superior temporal gyrus D 54 −26 14 5.08 5.86 0.72

**Peak of significant clusters at p < .001 uncorrected for all groups, k > 100 voxels.

aHemisphere.

Fig. 4. Peak coordinates of brain regions in response to positive messages among subjects with high (vs. low) environmental concern and vice versa.

Table 3

Peaks of active clustering in response to positive messages in subjects with high (vs. low) environmental concern.

MNI Coordinate Peak (mm) Effect

size

Brain region H^a x y z Z T z/√n

HC > LC

Middle frontal gyrus L −46 2 46 7.43 10.20 1.05

Amygdala R 10 −8 − 12 6.41 8.15 0.91

Insula R 40 −14 20 6.30 7.92 0.89

Superior temporal

gyrus L −4 2 64 5.84 7.06 0.83

Middle frontal gyrus R 42 10 28 5.65 6.75 0.80

Amydala L −26 −1 − 17 5.50 6.51 0.77

LC > HC

Calcarine L −10 −94 − 4 6.37 8.04 0.90

Hippocampus R 26 −30 − 4 5.89 7.19 0.83

Inferior parietal L −28 −52 44 5.67 6.82 0.80

**Peak of significant clusters at p < .0001 uncorrected for all groups, k > 100 voxels.

a Hemisphere.

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These results contrast with the findings of Casado-Aranda et al. (2018), which suggest higher attitudes towards congruent audiovisual advertisements.

Likewise, pleasant stimuli activate memory encoding in subjects with lower environmental concerns. Specifically, we found activity in the hippocampus. According to Tsukiura and Cabeza (2011), the hippocampus is activated upon recognizing previously visualized stimuli. One of the functions of the hippocampus is to promote the understanding of the visualized scene (Dalton et al., 2018). In our case, hippocampal activity in the presence of sustainable and environmentally responsible products coincides with the findings of Casado-Aranda and S´anchez-Fern´andez (2021); they found activity in this region when comparing the hedonic (vs. utilitarian) content of different web pages.

In subjects with low (vs. high) concern, the positive commercials generated a strong activation in the left inferior parietal region. The activity of this region has been linked to the processing of confusing information that generates conflict (Ojanen et al., 2005; Durston et al., 2003). This neural correlate is consistent with other research findings linking this region’s activity to erroneous information processing (Gau and Noppeney, 2016).

In subjects more concerned about the environment, a positive cor- relation (r = 0.909; sig = 0.000) was found between the activity of the parameter extracted from the vmPFC and the attitude towards the advertisement (see Fig. 5).

These results contrast with those reached by Falk et al. (2012), who suggest that the activity of this region is linked to behavioral change. In our case, the higher activity of this region in the concerned subjects may indicate that although they feel committed to the environment, they still do not perform behaviors such as those proposed in the advertisements.

However, they are willing to perform them. This highlights the gap in attitude-behavior (Zhang et al., 2021) when encouraging the adoption of environmentally friendly products. It is also possible that when processing positive advertisements that encourage the use of EERs, participants not only think of their benefit but also consider the benefits these technologies have for the planet and society in general. According to Casado-Aranda et al. (2017), this region, along with others, uncon- sciously integrates the value of social rewards and is involved in processing messages with gain end-state.

Furthermore, our data also contrasts with the work of Falk et al.

(2015), given that vmPFC activity in subjects with increased environmental concern during the processing of positive messages is related to attitude toward the advertisement.

Concerned subjects while positive encoding messages strongly activate the vmPFC. This finding suggests that when subjects are concerned about the environment, vmPFC activity during encoding persuasive messages may predict a change in behavior and an increased attitude

toward the green message. This information is of particular interest for anticipating the effectiveness of the advertisement (G´omez-Carmona et al., 2021; Casado-Aranda et al., 2017).

5. Conclusions

Knowledge about the cognitive and affective mechanisms through which viewers interpret information, explore ad features, and evaluate elements of advertisements is critical to encouraging the consumption of environmentally friendly products. The present research findings extend the current knowledge base on consumer brain activity when processing green advertising messages. Overall, the results achieved examine the effect generated by the positive valence and gain end-state approach versus neutral messages. The analysis identifies the moderating role of environmental concerns. We use a mixed experimental design to relate the hemodynamic blood response to the subjects’ attitudes toward the advertisement. To our knowledge, this is the first work that demon- strates the influence of environmental concern on the attitudinal evaluation of advertisements. This effect is not only present in the responses collected by self-report but also in identifying differences in the neural correlates when processing the information of the messages. This analysis method allows us to know the active regions in subjects who are more and less concerned about the environment, predict subsequent attitudinal evaluations, and determine advertising effectiveness (Casa- do-Aranda et al., 2017; G´omez-Carmona, 2020).

The findings are in line with previous studies, which suggest that environmental messages with positive valence and gain end-state are more effective in promoting socially responsible behaviors (Chahal and Kaur, 2015; Martinez-Fiestas et al., 2015; Casado-Aranda et al., 2017).

While the work of G´omez-Carmona et al. (2021), using eye-tracking techniques, demonstrated the effect of environmental concern on eye fixation patterns. This work deepens this line of research, employing functional magnetic resonance imaging and identifying the effect of worry on brain activation patterns. First, it was shown that visualizing positive emotional stimuli activates regions that neutral stimuli do not activate. It seems that ACC activity, when considering the sample as a whole, represents, on the one hand, the desired behavior that is not being carried out and, on the other hand, a discomfort generated by not doing everything possible to safeguard the environment. This result suggests that, regardless of the level of concern that the subjects have, the environmental message will be effective when it activates the CCA.

These findings are consistent with the findings of Casado-Aranda et al.

(2017). They showed greater activity in the right ACC when subjects processed positive messages showing environmentally friendly products.

Analyses of the whole sample also revealed that the STG was strongly activated while participants processed messages with positive valence and gained an end-state against neutral stimuli. Many subjects identify with advertisements that report the benefits of consuming products that reduce environmental emissions, considering that the proposed actions generate good results. Positive self-conscious emotion is generated in them. When consumers do not do everything in their power to take care of the environment and see the benefits that could be achieved with everyday actions (using rechargeable batteries, using a bicycle to get to work), it is not surprising that even positive ads can generate discomfort among viewers.

In our case, while all participants view positive advertisements, the effect on one another may differ. However, these stimuli may reinforce the proposed behavior and general well-being or pride in some subjects.

In other subjects, visualizing these stimuli may generate a guilty con- science for not carrying out the recommended behavior.

In the case of subjects showing high (vs. low) environmental concern, the activity in the insula suggests that they pay more attention to the advertisements, experience greater emotion linked to the pleasant environmental stimulus, and have greater motivation to perform the proposed behaviors. In other words, this region’s activity can predict the Fig. 5. Relationship between ventromedial prefrontal cortex activity and atti-

tude toward the advertisement.

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subjects’ involvement, the attention paid, and the emotion generated by the advertisement. Knowing which regions anticipate a more significant concern for the medium while processing information is essential to determine advertising effectiveness (G´omez-Carmona, 2020).

With the insula, subjects with high concern registered activity in the amygdala while viewing positive advertisements. This region is linked to processing stimuli with a high emotional charge. Specifically, it seems that the visualization of pleasant environmental stimuli generates an affective response among worried subjects that activates the motivational system, in this case, of approach, and encourages subjects to perform the proposed behavior.

On the other hand, the combination of elements (valence and final state) can provoke in participants with low (vs. high) environmental concern an early capture of their attention since it activates primary visual areas such as the calcarine area. However, it fails to activate the motivational system that would encourage a proposed behavioral change.

The hippocampal activity may indicate that subjects with a lower concern for the environment consider the stimuli shown in the positive commercials as hedonistic. Participants perceive the positive stimuli as luxury items, perhaps, difficult to attain, or as products beyond their means of acquisition.

Subjects less concerned about the environment consider the arguments used by positive environmental advertisements that encourage responsible consumption incongruous. Casado-Aranda et al. (2018) found activity in the inferior parietal when subjects process incongruent audiovisual advertisements.

We can say that pleasant or positive stimuli elicit increased endogenous attention in subjects with low worry. It is possible that for non- worried subjects, climate change is not yet a real problem, and they perceive multisensory stimuli (positive images and text with gain end state) as incongruent. Specifically, the perception generated by this type of commercial is confusing and contradictory and may generate internal conflicts.

Finally, the findings show that not all subjects show the same interest in environmental advertisements. The results show a link between subjects’ attitudes towards advertisements and cognitive and affective mechanisms related to neural activity. On the one hand, it is noteworthy that the activity in limbic regions in subjects concerned about the environment highlights the importance of the visualized stimuli. On the other hand, the existence of a cognitive filter or defense or rejection mechanisms among subjects less concerned about the environment slows down the persuasion generated by messages of positive valence and a final state of gain when responsible consumption is encouraged.

6. Limitations and future lines of research

The passive visualization of the stimuli reflects the logic of audiovisual advertisements, where subjects do not make decisions at the moment but only process the information and pay attention to what they consider essential. It would be interesting in future work to analyze the decision-making process for environmentally friendly products among different consumer segments.

Second, the research design used environmental concern as a moderating variable. Future work could include perceived savings, purchase price, or switching costs from one energy to another as moderating variables limiting renewable energy consumption.

Third, the findings of this research should be treated with caution, given that the study participants are from the same country and have a similar culture and education. Future research could compare information processing among citizens from different cultures and analyze differences in their levels of awareness.

Finally, this work manipulated the valence and final state of the message elements. Future studies could analyze, using fMRI, the effect of social distance (personal vs. social benefits), animation (static vs. dy- namic), or the effect of other hitherto unknown advertising elements.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Diego G´omez-Carmona: Conceptualization, Methodology, Formal analysis, Software. Pedro Pablo Marín-Due˜nas: Conceptualization, Writing – review & editing. Rafael Cano Tenorio: Writing – review &

editing, Translation and editing. César Serrano Domínguez: Supervi- sion, Writing – review & editing. Francisco Muñoz-Leiva: Methodol- ogy, Software, Supervision. Francisco J. Liébana-Cabanillas:

Conceptualization, Writing – review & editing.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Data availability

Data will be provided upon request to other researchers.

Acknowledgements

This study was conducted with the financial support received from the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (Research Project ECO2012-39576), the Economy, Innovation, Science and Employment Division of the Andalusian Regional Government (Research Projects P12-SEJ-1980) and the Instituto Universitario para el Desarrollo Social Sostenible (INDESS).

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