The vulnerability of the Metropolitan District of Quito,
Ecuador
Vulnerabilidades del distrito metropolitano de Quito,
Ecuador
Yolanda Ledesma, Ángel Rodrigo Cobos Central University of Ecuador, Quito, Ecuador
Abstract
In Latin America, countries have endeavored to improve knowledge management in order to optimize its processes in all areas of the country, looking for ways to transmit the necessary knowledge generated, especially about the prevention of risks based on threats existing, analyzing various theories that have been given on the subject. Since Ecuador is located in the so-called Ring of Fire where 85% of the seismic energy released by the planet in the form of earthquakes is concentrated, it is important to answer this research question: ¿Does the current knowledge on vulnerable sites within the Quito Metropolitan District (QMD), located in Ecuador, would help to produce effective risk management practices? This study aims to analyze the current threats focusing on the seismic and volcanic hazards that are threatening its sustainability as well as the capitals related by using the Vulnerability Assessment Method and the QMD Risk Map. The implications of these results are: The knowledge collected and compiled facilitates to reduce the vulnerability factors, increase its capacity and decrease the potential threats. The main recommendation is to implement a Disaster Planning, Emergency Preparedness and Business Continuity that allows mobilize all citizens located in risk areas to other safer places, in order to minimize the damages and disasters caused by these threats and provide timely the support needed by victims and people affected.
Keywords: Ecuador, Quito, Threats, volcano, vulnerability.
Resumen
En América Latina, los países se han esforzado por mejorar la gestión del conocimiento con el fin de optimizar sus procesos en todas las áreas del país, buscando la manera de transmitir los conocimientos necesarios generados, sobre todo acerca de la prevención de riesgos en base a
las amenazas existentes, analizando diversas teorías que se han dado sobre el tema. En virtud que el Ecuador se encuentra en el llamado Anillo de Fuego, donde se concentra el 85% de la energía sísmica liberada por el planeta en forma de terremotos, es importante responder a esta pregunta de investigación: ¿El conocimiento actual sobre sitios vulnerables dentro del Distrito Metropolitano de Quito (DMQ), ubicado en Ecuador, contribuye a las prácticas eficaces de gestión de riesgos? Este estudio pretende analizar las amenazas actuales, enfocándose en los riesgos sísmicos y volcánicos que amenazan su sostenibilidad, así como también los capitales relacionados, utilizando el Método de Evaluación de Vulnerabilidades y el Mapa de riesgos del DMQ. Los resultados responden la pregunta planteada: El conocimiento reunido y compilado facilita reducir los factores de vulnerabilidades, aumentar la capacidad de DMQ y disminuir las amenazas potenciales. La recomendación principal es implementar una planificación para desastres, preparación para emergencias y continuidad de negocios, que permita movilizar a todos los ciudadanos ubicados en zonas de riesgo a otros lugares más seguros para reducir al mínimo los daños y desastres causados por estas amenazas y proporcionar oportunamente el apoyo necesario a las víctimas y a las personas afectadas.
Palabras clave: Amenazas, Ecuador, Quito, volcán, vulnerabilidades.
Introduction
Ecuador is located in the so-called Ring of Fire where 85% of the seismic energy released by the planet in the form of earthquakes is concentrated, this gives rise to the level of seismicity is high with magnitudes greater than 5. Besides, it is important to analyze the physical structure of the Metropolitan District of Quito (QMD) which has a high volcanic risk due to it is located on the slopes of Guagua Pichincha volcano. Also, Cotopaxi and Pululahua have a potential risk of eruption. Other active volcanoes are Cayambe and Antisana which could affect the supply systems of the city. The worst threats are seismic, volcanic and hydro that can influence geomorphological, social and economic changes.
Therefore, it can be drawn that the QMD is vulnerable for the reasons mentioned. Then, it is necessary that the three sector of the economy (government, public and private
sectors) work together in order to prepare all
citizens for any event that could happen in the future. For this, the Institut de Recherche pour le Développement (IRD) and the Quito Metropolitan District (QMD), created the program “Information System and Risks in the Quito Metropolitan District” in 1999. This plan has conceptual, methodological and operational goals, and it seeks to give everyone a scientific understanding of the risks in order to improve crisis management and thus achieving a reduction in the QMD’s vulnerability.
This study aims to analyze the current threats focusing on the seismic and volcanic hazards that are threatening its sustainability as well as the capitals related. The main thing is to know the most vulnerable places, especially those that are important to the QMD operation, such as water, transportation, electricity, sewage, fuel, food, and determine the most secure sites where people can go in the case of an eventuality. Also, it is required to define how to protect its historical and architectural assets, which are part of its cultural heritage, such as churches and monuments. Other threats are floods and landslides due to many of the settlements in the city are in danger of collapsing hillsides and also population has grown to the moors and protected sites of the city. In addition, the ongoing forest fires endanger the lives of individuals and species, many endangered. Some areas, such as Cumbaya and Tumbaco, should be taken into account due to their high concentration of population and continued
growth in both population and commercial. The knowledge of QMD different vulnerability can help to understand better and prevent the presence of any event that could occur through the use of appropriate strategies to minimize all risks and the loss of human and material resources.
In order to find a way to transmit the necessary knowledge about the prevention of risks based on existing threats, several theories related to this subject will be analyzed. One of these studies is the Information System and Risks of Quito Metropolitan District which explains the notion of risk, its implications, and the methodology to manage risks and to analyze different vulnerability. The awareness of the limits imposed on this research about the conceptualization of risk is indisputable and results in questions and redefinitions, such as threat versus vulnerability (D’ercole & Metzger, 2004b).
Figure 1. Generation of Disaster Risk. and as a social product.
Source: Dwyer, Zoppou, Nielsen, Day, & Roberts, 2004.
Threat refers to natural events which can affect different places and people, such as: seismic faults, volcanic eruptions, slopes, tornados, etc. at different times (Blaikie et al., 1996). However, not necessarily all situations of disaster risk happen, it depends precisely on the human inability to reduce the intensity of the phenomenon to zero (Thomas, 2011).
Thomas (2011,s/p.) defines disaster management as:
Disaster management of the disaster and how to act on it; i.e. its fundamental conceptual and operational core is linked to a post- event situation where what is sought is the implementation of certain practices of damage control in favor of the existing system and return to normal by the existing destructive event; even this interpretation recognizes, whether implicitly, as a concomitant threat made to the disaster; when this really is a function of human inability to reduce the vulnerability of the population to levels acceptable losses , assumable and assimilated by society as a whole and specifically impacted communities and not by the same
occurrence of the event particular.
The paradox of all this is that poor areas are those that suffer the most damage and the most vulnerable to an event, usually this happens in the QMD, because the houses are built in unsafe, such as slopes or risk areas.
The threat is a potentially destructive phenomenon, natural (earthquake, hurricane, volcanic eruption, etc.), anthropogenic (explosions inside a chemical plant, violence, war, etc.) or mixed (e.g., some landslides, floods, droughts, epidemics, etc.) capable of affecting a territory defined by the presence and importance of the elements that are located in the (people, goods, property, activities, etc.) (D’ercole & Metzger, 2004b). The main threats for the QMD can be listed as follows: In winter, floods occur due to poor infrastructure of sewers and water collectors, as well as continuous landslides, floods, causing human and economic losses; disrespect for traffic laws causes frequent accidents that cause the death of many people, as well as transportation of flammable products from tankers crossing through the city. On a smaller scale you have to earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. In the summer the continuing forest fires are a danger to human, wildlife and animal life.
Volcanic threat
causing a suspension of economic and social activities. See figure 2.
Figure 2. Volcanos in the QMD.
Source: Geophysical Institute. EPN.
As can be seen, DMQ is in a risk zone, and in the case of an event, various activities would be affected if not handled properly.
Seismic Hazards
QMD has had catastrophic consequences in relation to the threat of earthquake as has happened in other cities. For example, the largest of the earthquakes occurred on March 5, 1987, which had an intensity of 9, with its epicenter in Napo Province, causing many of the houses broke and panic among the inhabitants of the city. According to Chatelain et al., (1996), earthquakes that can affect the QMD come from three sources: The first is the area between Nazca and the west of the Ecuadorian coast, for example, the most violent earthquake was in 1906 in the state Esmeraldas.
The second source is of continental origin and is situated in the South American plate, principally under the Andean and sub-Andean zones where earthquakes as the one in 1987 are numerous. Third, failures may occur in the District or in the vicinity, causing local earthquakes, like the case of Catequilla fault that caused the earthquake in Pomasqui in 1990 (Chatelain et al., 1996). Pomasqui and San Antonio areas could be the most
affected in the event of an earthquake due to the weak construction in the sector.
Geomorphological threats
The geomorphological threat can be understood as the manifestation of gravitational mass movement of land destabilized under the effect of natural phenomena (e.g., heavy rainfall, earthquakes, etc.) or human actions (e.g., earthmoving, vibrations, deforestation, exploitation of materials quarries, etc.) (MATE & METL, 1999). All this is due to QMD has a longitudinal growth, and construction of homes have destroyed forests and protected zones of the city, as well as have populated around the slopes of Pichincha, causing large landslides. Several of these events occurred in 2000 due to the harsh winter that hit the capital. In approximately 50% of the metropolitan area, the conditions are particularly conducive to the outbreak of geomorphological hazards (Dávila, 1992).
Hydro threats
Related vulnerability mobilization
A sustainable community can be developed by mobilizing governments and citizens in order to strengthen community capital (Roseland, 2012). This implies that natural capital consumption should be minimized, and physical capital should be improved which needs an efficient use of urban space. For this reason, it is important to have an Emergency Plan to apply immediately as soon as an event occurs in order to mobilize people timely to safer areas from the risk areas in the QMD. Figure 3 shows that Mobilization is related to different kinds of capital, such as: Natural, physical, economic, human, social, and cultural.
Figure 3. Community mobilization
Source: Mark Roseland, 2012
Regarding to QMD, the volcano Cotopaxi reactivation in 1976, which did not end in eruption, inspired the creation of the Geophysical Institute of the National Polytechnic School in order to prevent over the vulnerability instead of the disaster. Later on, some Risk’s Maps were developed which were included in the Prevention Plans made by public institutions. On the other side, the Pichincha state Government has distributed on August, 2015 the Prevention Plan to
Quito’s population for the mobilization of people and institutions (human and social capital) in case of a possible eruption of volcano Cotopaxi, showing the temporary housing available, and the risk areas, precautionary measures for the roads and irrigation canals, and instructions to prepare a backpack with an emergency kit in case of some event occurs such as an earthquake or a volcanic eruption. The Pichincha, Rumiñahui, and Mejia communities have made simulations in the last months which let measure evacuation times, adapt evacuation routes, and implement shelters and networks of parent volunteers.
In summary, the Ecuadorean government is analyzing natural phenomena like floods, which cause more damage to mobility within the QMD, and prevent normal traffic flow. Moreover, evacuation drills are carried out and increasingly seeks to correct errors, and especially to decrease vulnerability and human and economic losses.
Methodology
Based on the importance of vulnerability for the QMD, the Vulnerability Assessment Methods and the QMD Risk Map have been chosen in order to analyze the current threats. This methodology provides a complete analysis of the hazards: Seismic, tsunami, volcanic, landslides, floods, and droughts. The goal of this paper is to analyze the main seismic and volcanic hazards that are threatening the QMD sustainability.
Risk Map
measuring the potential damage associated with its occurrence (López & Sánchez, 2013). Such maps provide valuable information related to: comprehensive information on how the community is exposed globally, provides economic information on the total risks assumed, and facilitates the exploration of the various sources of risk. It is very important to anticipate, identify and assess the risks that different entities are exposed, because with this it achieves the goals and strategies set out in them, although many of them cannot be removed, at least they must find mechanisms to manage them properly.
The objective of the Risk Map is to synthesize information on the uncertainties facing the company and collaborate on strategies to mitigate exposure and potential damage (García, 1994). According to García (1994), a risk map involves four stages:
Phase 1. Cognitive: a thorough knowledge of risk factors for programming beyond improvisation preventive interventions.
Phase 2. Analysis: Analysis of the knowledge acquired in the previous step. Based on the same intervention, priorities shall be laid down and will be scheduled.
Phase 3. Intervention Phase: Application on a practical level on intervention plans scheduled.
Phase 4. Evaluation Phase: Verify the results of intervention regarding program objectives.
The use of this methodology is recommended in order to prevent damage
caused by different events, for which it is necessary to collect lots of information. Often obtaining such information is difficult by the lack and inaccuracy of the data needed. With this mask you can have an understanding of the various risks that could occur in the geographical area, the company, sector, etc. With this knowledge, responsible entities can define and prioritize the different activities for the prevention and prevention program of these events, and at the same time must socialize the same to those who are within the different risk areas. The result is an evaluation and a critical analysis of the various controls established to mitigate the risks.
Risk maps serve to make the community aware of the risks to which it is exposed, to prepare plans for prevention and mitigation, and to organize and educate the community on appropriate action (Secretaria Nacional de Gestión de Riesgos, 2010). It is recommended that the risk map should be drawn by members of the respective communities. It is recommended that the risk map should be drawn by members of the respective communities in order to identify their own problems and seek their own solutions, using their human and material resources.
Methodology for Threats Assessment with natural origin
hazard was subjectively assigned based on the data that were previously crossed over. Next, each hazard maps, according to the type of natural hazard, are explained in detail.
Seismic hazard
To determine the level of seismic hazard by community, it was taken as reference the seismic zoning that produced the Geophysical Institute at the National Polytechnic School of Ecuador; this zoning was defined from the acceleration maximum effective on rock expected for the earthquake.
Volcanic eruption
The volcanic threat map identifies the active volcanos in red color, and the inactive volcanos in blue color. Figure 4 shows that the QMD is surrounded by 10 active volcanos, and 16 inactive volcanos, the most dangerous is the volcano Cotopaxi. In this way, the risk areas can be identified.
Figure 4. Volcanic Threats in QMD
Source: Geophysical Institute. EPN
Ecuador Risk Map generation
In this phase, the authors (López & Sánchez, 2013) mention that for the risk map, they added further information
on social vulnerability, information found associated with local capacities and conflicts that may have determined area, sector or county.
On this phase of the study, instead of determining the vulnerability of the country, some information was incorporated to determine risk mapping. However, in order to determine the vulnerability of an area, it is necessary to take into account a number of variables and indicators measuring the social impact, as well as information about infrastructure, political and administrative organization, and living conditions of the affected population. This is used later to evaluate the methodology for the QMD, related to its vulnerability.
Analysis and results
Capitals
Capital is understood as “wealth in the form of money or assets, taken as a sign of the financial strength of an individual, organization, or nation, and assumed to be available for development or investment. In Accounting, it is the money invested in a business to generate income. In Economics, it include the factors of production that are used to create goods or services and are not themselves in the process”
(BusinessDictionary.com, 2016). There are
the following six types of capital.
Physical capital
In economics, physical capital is understood as the infrastructure that let people satisfy their needs (Roseland, 2012) like food, shelter, dress, energy, and water.
Los Chillos Valley, Cumbaya and Tumbaco, which means that any manufactured asset that is used in production, such as buildings, machinery, or vehicles will be seriously damaged due to the lahars, ashes, and especially by the floods generated by the ice melted from the Volcano Cotopaxi.
Natural capital
It is any natural asset that can generate valuable goods and services. It can be categorized into two groups: Renewable resources related to food and services, non-renewable resources related to minerals and fossil fuels, and natural systems that help to provide critical goods and services (Roseland, 2012). In general, natural capital includes: geography, soil, air, water, and all living things. The QMD’s natural capital would be severely affected under an imminent volcanic eruption. Moreover, the shape and landscape of the valleys, such as Los Chillos, Cumbaya and Tumbaco would change permanently due to the lahars, ashes, lava, and floods produced by the ice melted from the Volcano Cotopaxi, which is currently in process of eruption. Besides, not only the natural resources could be lost, but also human lives, and wildlife.
Economic capital
Roseland (2012) defines it as “the way to allocate resources and make decisions about our material lives.” It can also be understood as capital that is necessary for a firm be solvent and support any risks. In other words, It is related to the probability that a company do not become insolvent during a specific period and it is based on the statistical calculation (Investopedia, 2016).
In the case of QMD, based on United
Nations Environment Programme statistics,
around 43.50% of households are below the poverty line who live in the periphery of the city. Only 5.62% of the income is owned by 20% of the poorest while 50% of the wealth is owned by 20% of the richest. Many people cannot afford the rental costs of the center and south sectors due to the high housing prices in Quito, capital of Ecuador. In addition, 53% of settlements are informal and 443 neighborhoods are illegal due to poor planning and municipal housing regulation. These people is wrongly located on risk areas, so they are vulnerable to flooding and landslide events.
Human capital
Human capital is related to the “knowledge, skills, competencies, and other attributes embodied in individuals that facilitate the creation of personal, social and economic well-being.” (OECD Centre for Educational Research and Innovation, 1998). It is also understood by equity as required for the production of consumer goods, and consists of machinery, buildings and facilities, element by which capital goods are those intended for the production of consumer goods, in order to satisfy needs and generate revenue economic.
and distribution of products to customers and intermediaries. This causes substantial economic losses for businesses.
Social Capital
Social capital refers to “the relationships, networks and norms that facilitate collective action.” (OECD, 2001). The capital of a person would be defined as its ability to mobilize the will of others for their benefit without resorting to force or threat of force. Unlike physical capital which is based on rights, and human capital that is installed in people, social capital is based on relationships. This fact makes difficult the transfer of capital when people leave the structure operates as a reservoir of the same.
Regarding the QMD, its capital is also affected to the physical and natural hazards. This increases social vulnerability as it is the inability of a person to seize opportunities available in various socio-economic sectors to improve their welfare or prevent its deterioration. As the missed opportunities implies a weakening of the accumulation process of assets, vulnerability often trigger negative synergies that tend to a progressive worsening. Among the sources of social vulnerability are the phenomena of precariousness and labor instability linked to market performance and the vulnerability and insecurity linked to the withdrawal of the state and the weakening of fundamental institutions, family and community.
Cultural capital
It includes the traditional and cultural resources (Flora, Flora, & Gasteyer, 2016). It is the sum of traditions, history, identity, heritage, customs, and values (Roseland,
2012). It is also related to knowledge shared
by the members of a society. The term
cultural capital includes social assets that foster social mobility, but it does not refers to financial or economic assets. It lets people to achieve goals, have success and climb the social ladder, but without financial capital. For instance, attire, speech, education, appearance, and intellect.
Discussion
The municipality of QMD has created the Metropolitan System Integrated Risk Management of the Quito Metropolitan District and its components. The same aims “that non-governmental public, private institutions and social organizations, and institutions of international cooperation, interact, coordinate, relate and work systemically for comprehensive risk management that
allows safeguard the security of people, goods
and infrastructure of the Quito Metropolitan District” (Concejo Metropolitano de Quito, 2008).
Due to the Cotopaxi volcano
reactivation and possible eruption in
September 10, 2015, the Metropolitan Council of Quito Mayor announced the launch of Quito Civic Plan: Prevention and Solidarity. This plan was designed to work with working groups formed by the municipal authorities, who have the task to interact directly with civil society. It must focus on the three systems Economy: private or profit oriented, public service facilities, and social mutual self-help.
According to the D’ercole & Metzger (2004a):
responsible for the actions to be developed to handle the crisis situation. This national institution is headed by a senior military authority.
The National Secretariat for Risk Management presented in 2010 an Institutional Emergency Plan to be used by public and private companies against possible risks. The dissemination of this guide requires the cooperation of all members of the institution. Under these circumstances, companies regularly conduct drills, as well as for validating the processes and behavior of individuals in order to improve its effectiveness, and actions and times provided in an emergency, to help them reduce the risks. If the procedures are properly applied, be achieved lessen the impact that could have on the country’s development in the case of a risk, because it would lose less human lives and economic losses would be diminished if a decrease is be accomplished via disruption of productive activities and service.
Conclusions
Based on the information obtained, the research question can be answered in the following way: In the new knowledge society, the knowledge collected and compiled facilitates to reduce the vulnerability’ factors, increases the QMD capacity, and decreases the potential threats, which help to know how to produce an effective risk management practices not only by citizens but also by public, private, and especially social institutions and the coordination among them. To reach this goal, the Vulnerability Assessment Method and the QMD Risk Map have been used in order to analyze the current threats, focusing on the seismic and volcanic hazards that are threatening the QMD sustainability. The QMD is located within an area at risk because it is surrounded
by volcanoes, some of which are active and emitting ashes which can cause discomfort among its inhabitants, as well as problems in basic services.
Among the major causes hindering the development of Ecuador, specifically the QMD, are the estimation of socio-economic impacts arising from the damage caused by adverse events of natural and anthropogenic, recurrent or concurrent origin. These events cause not only huge losses in natural, economic and physical capitals, but also irrecoverable losses in social, human, and cultural capitals. For example, in a catastrophic event, thousands of people could die or disappear (human capital), companies could lose their infrastructure and assets (social capital), and touristic sites like churches, museums, and places located in the Historic Center of Quito (Downtown), one of the most beautiful scenarios in Latin America, could be destroyed, which represents that the legacy could be gone (cultural capital). The QMD impacts, in case of any event would happen, also include: Ecosystems, quality of life and human health (and dead and missing people), urban and rural economy, political and institutional level, and build-up environment.
The results show that the QMD is not prepared to deal with all the threats like: Imminent volcanic eruption of the volcano Cotopaxi, seismic hazards, geomorpho-logical (gravitational mass movement of land), and collapse of drainage drinking water; neither to deal with all the vulnerability such as: Inadequate supply water, transportation, fragile electric system, mobilization problems, and some companies and people located in areas of high risk.
Despite the DMQ has risk prevention plans in the event of a threat, it is recommended that commissions track each of the items referred to in these plans. On this basis, the government must work together with institutions to keep improving
and reducing the danger to the threats that
surround the city and surrounding parishes. For this, it is required that policy decentralize and mobilize the population that is located in areas at risk and could be hardest hit, looking to this economic development outside the areas of risk, in order to establish settlements more sustainable, through training projects in the short and medium term. It is very important that institutions help in preventing risks by empowering them. These institutions should have their own rules and regulations and be able to respond to various contingencies.
Literature cited
Atlas Ambiental del Distrito Metropolitano de Quito. (2008). El clima en el Distrito Metropolitano de Quito. Quito: Ilustre Municipio del Distrito Metropolitano de Quito.
Blaikie, P., Cannon, T., Davis, I., & Wisner, B. (1996). Vulnerabilidad: el entorno social, político y económico de los desastres. Colombia: Tercer Mundo Editores.
BusinessDictionary.com. (2016). Capital. Retrieved August 17, 2016, from http://www.
businessdictionary.com/definition/capital. html
Chatelain, J.-L., Gltillier, B., Yepes, H., Fernandez, J., Valverde, J., Tucker, B., & Hoeffer, G. (1996). Projet pilote de scénario sismique à Quito (Équateur): méthode et résultats. Bull. Inst. Fr. Études Andines, 25(3), 553–588.
Concejo Metropolitano de Quito. (2008). Ordenanza Metropolitana 265. Quito: Concejo Metropolitano de Quito. D’ercole, R., & Metzger, P. (2004a). La
institucionalización de los riesgos en el DMQ. In La Vulnerabilidad del Distrito Metropolitano de Quito (pp. 411–428). Quito: o de Quito - Dirección Metropolitana de Territorio y Vivienda.
D’ercole, R., & Metzger, P. (2004b). La Vulnerabilidad del Distrito Metropolitano de Quito. Quito.
Dávila, A. (1992). Estabilidad geomorfológica de la region de Quito. Quito: Instituto Geográfico Militar.
Dwyer, A., Zoppou, C., Nielsen, O., Day, S., & Roberts, S. (2004). Quantifying Social Vulnerability: A methodology for identifying those at risk to natural hazards. Australia: Geoscience Austarlia.
El Universo. (2015, April 18). Lluvia, granizo e inundación en Quito y en otros sitios de Pichincha. Clima Extrema. Quito. Retrieved from http://www.eluniverso.com/ noticias/2015/04/18/nota/4779251/lluvia- granizo-e-inundacion-quito-otros-sitios-pichincha
Flora, C. B., Flora, J. L., & Gasteyer, S. (2016). Rural Communities Legacy and Change (Fourth Edi). Boulder: WestviewPress. García, M. (1994). Los mapas de riesgos.
concepto y metodologia para su elaboracion. Instituto Nacional de Seguridad E Higiene En El Trabajo (INSHT). Madrid, 68(4), 443–453.
Investopedia. (2016). What is “Economic Capital.” Retrieved August 17, 2016, from http://www.investopedia.com/terms/e/ economic-capital.asp
MATE, & METL. (1999). Plans de prévention des risques naturels (PPR): risques de
mouvements de terrain, Guides métodologiques. París: La Documentation Française.
OECD. (2001). Growth Effects of Education and Social Capital in the OECD Countries. OECD Economic Studies, 33.
OECD Centre for Educational Research and Innovation. (1998). Human capital investment: an international comparison. París: OECD.
Roseland, M. (2012). Toward Sustainable Communities: Solutions for Citizens and their Governments. Canada: New Society Publishers.
Secretaria Nacional de Gestión de Riesgos. (2010). Guía Comunitaria de Gestión de Riesgos (Vol. 1). Quito. http://doi. org/10.1017/CBO9781107415324.004 Thomas, J. (2011). Desarrollo y gestión social
del riesgo: ¿una contradicción histórica? Departamento de Geografía, Universidad Del Valle, 133–157. http://doi.org/http://dx.doi. org/10.4067/S0718-34022011000100008 Torres Peñafiel, N. del R. (2015). El concepto
de capital humano enfocado al conocimiento. Revista Contribuciones a La Economía. Retrieved from http://eumed.net/ce/2015/1/ capital-humano.html
Yépez, H. (2014). El riesgo volcánico del Distrito Metropolitano de Quito. Quito.
D’Ercole, R., & Metzger, P. (2009). Las dimensiones espaciales del manejo de crisis. Interés de la investigación y aplicación en Quito. Bulletin de l’Institut français d’études andines, 24.
