Factors that influence Seventh-day Adventists toward entrepreneurship

(1)

Montemorelos University

Faculty of Business and Legal Sciences

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE SEVENTH-DAY ADVENTISTS TOWARD ENTREPRNEURSHIP

Thesis

presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree Doctorate in Business Administration

by

(2)

ABSTRACT

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE SEVENTH-DAY ADVENTISTS TOWARD ENTREPRENEURSHIP

by

Michael George Coleman

(3)

DOCTORAL THESIS ABSTRACT

Title: FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE SEVENTH-DAY ADVENTISTS TOWARD EN-TREPRENEURSHIP

Researcher’s name: Michael George Coleman

Name and degree of main advisor: Karla Sarai Basurto Gutierrez, PhD in Business Administration

Date completed: April 2019

Problem

Can the variables of personality traits, values, social networks, role models, fam-ily background, and religion influence the entrepreneurial behavior of Seventh-day Ad-ventists mainly in the New York metropolitan region and in other states of the United States?

Methodology

(4)

of the USA, and among members of the ASI national convention in the United States. The substantive statistical process was based on a multiple regression analysis, per-formed in SPSS 20.0.

The constructs for the seven instruments used were done through factorial anal-ysis techniques (with explained variance levels of over 54%, which are acceptable) and the reliability, measured with the Cronbach alpha coefficient for each instrument, was acceptable (with the lowest explained variance levels of .718). For the analysis of this hypothesis, the statistical technique of multiple linear regression was used.

Results

The original theoretical model was not confirmed. However, the alternative model was validated with the sample of Adventist business owners identified above. In the alternative model, role model and entrepreneurial behavior are good predictors of social networks among the sample of Adventist business owners. When evaluating the influence of independent constructs through the standardized beta coefficients, it was found that the best predictor of social networks is role model.

Conclusion

(5)

(6)

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE SEVENTH-DAY ADVENTISTS TOWARD ENTREPRENEUSHIP

Thesis

presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree Doctorate in Business Administration

by

(7)

(8)

DEDICATION

(9)

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF FIGURES ... ix

LIST OF TABLES ... x

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ... xii

Chapter I. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM ... 1

Introduction ... 1

Personality Traits ... 1

Values... 2

Social Networks ... 2

Role Model ... 3

Family Background ... 3

Religion ... 3

Entrepreneurship/Entrepreurial Behavior... 4

Definition of Terms ... 5

Relationship between Variables ... 7

Personality Traits and Entrepreneurship... 7

Values and Entrepreneurship ... 7

Role Model and Entrepreneurship ... 8

Social Networks and Entrepreneurship... 8

Personality Traits, Role Models, and Entrepreneurship ... 9

Family Background and Entrepreneurship... 9

Religion and Entrepreneurship ... 9

Religion, Values and Entrepreneurship ... 10

Religion, Social Networks, and Entrepreneurship ... 10

Religion, Role Models, and Entrepreneurship ... 11

Religion, Personality Traits, and Entrepreneurship ... 11

Problem Statement ... 11

Problem ... 13

Alternative Model ... 13

Hypothesis ... 14

Alternative Hypothesis ... 15

Research Objectives ... 15

Justification ... 16

(10)

Delimitations ... 17

Assumptions ... 17

Philosophical Background ... 18

Values... 19

Role Model ... 20

Religion ... 21

Entrepreneurial Behavior ... 22

Study Organization ... 22

II. LITERATURE REVIEW ... 24

Introduction ... 24

Importance ... 24

Dimensions ... 25

Values….. ... ... 27

Importance ... 27

Dimensions ... 28

Importance ... 31

Dimensions ... 32

Role Models ... 34

Importance ... 34

Dimensions ... 34

Importance ... 36

Dimensions ... 37

Religion ... 38

Importance ... 38

Dimensions ... 38

Sabbath Observance ... 39

Marriage and the Family ... 40

Mission ... 40

Helping Others/Service ... 41

Stewardship ... 41

The Gift of Prophecy and the Writings of Ellen G. White ... 42

Healthful Living ... 43

Christian Education ... 43

Spiritual Growth ... 44

Entrepreneurship ... 44

Importance ... 44

Dimensions ... 44

(11)

Role Models and Entrepreneurship ... 49

Religion, Personality Traits, and Entrepreneurship ... 57

Religion, Values, and Entrepreneurship ... 58

The Concept of Calling ... 60

Religion, Social Networks, and Entrepreneurship ... 62

Religion, Role Model, and Entrepreneurship ... 63

Religion, Family Background, and Entrepreneurship ... 63

Research about the Variables ... 64

Role Models and Entrepreneurship ... 69

III. METHODOLOGY ... 77

Introduction ... 77

Type of Investigation ... 77

Population ... 79

Sample ... 79

Measuring Instruments ... 80

Variables ... 80

Instrument Development ... 80

Instrument Validity ... 81

Content Validity ... 82

Construct Validity ... 82

Values... 84

Role Model ... 89

Religion ... 92

Reliability of the Instrument ... 97

Operationalization of the Variables ... 98

Null Hypothesis ... 98

Main Null Hypothesis ... 98

Operationalization of Null Hypothesis ... 100

Data Collection ... 100

(12)

IV. ANALYSIS OF THE RESULTS ... 102

Introduction ... 102

Population and Sample ... 102

Demographic Description ... 103

Birth Period ... 103

Gender... 103

Years of Business Ownership ... 104

Business Category ... 105

Academic Level ... 105

Arithmetic Means ... 106

Values... 106

Role Model ... 109

Religion ... 111

Cross-Tables ... 114

Years of Businesses Ownership and Entrepreneurial Behavior ... 114

Years of Employment and Entrepreneurial Behavior .... 115

Academic Level and Personality Traits ... 116

Years of Business Ownership and Personality Traits .... 117

Religion and Personality Traits ... 118

Social Networks and Personality Traits ... 119

Values and Personality Traits ... 120

Multiple Regression Assumptions ... 121

Alternative Null Hypothesis ... 122

Summary of Chapter ... 123

V. CONCLUSIONS, DISCUSSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS ... 125

Introduction ... 125

Conclusions ... 125

Arithmetic Means ... 125

Values ... 126

Role Model ... 127

Religion ... 128

Entrepreneurial Behavior... 129

Cross-Tables ... 129

(13)

Personality Traits and Other Independent Variables ... 130

Hypotheses ... 132

Alternative Null Hypothesis ... 133

Discussions ... 133

Values... 134

Religion ... 134

Role Model ... 136

Role Model, Entrepreneurial Behavior, and Social Networks . 136 Recommendations ... 138

For Future Research ... 139

Apéndice A. INSTRUMENTS... 140

B. CONSTRUCT VALIDITY ... 149

C. ANALYSIS OF RELIABILITY ... 159

D. OPERATIONALIZATION OF THE VARIABLES ... 162

E. MULTIPLE REGRESSION ASSUMPTIONS ... 168

F. NULL HYPOTHESIS ANALYSIS ... 171

REFERENCES ... 174

(14)

LIST OF FIGURES

1. Theoretical Model for Entrepreneurial Behavior... ... 14

2. Theoretical Model for Social Networks. ... 15

3. Model 1 ... 122

(15)

LIST OF TABLES

1. Rotated Matrix of Personality Traits ... 85

2. Rotated Matrix of Values ... 87

3. Rotated Matrix of Social Networks ... 89

4. Rotated Matrix of Role Model ... 91

5. Rotated Matrix of Family Background ... 92

6. Rotated Matrix of Religion ... 94

7. Rotated Matrix of Entrepreneurial Behavior ... 97

8. Operationalization of the Variable Social Networks ... 99

9. Operationalization of Hypothesis ... 101

10. Distribution of Participants by Birth Period ... 103

11. Distribution of Participants by Gender ... 104

12. Distribution of Participants by Years of Business Ownership ... 104

13. Business Category of Entrepreneurs ... 105

14. Distribution According to Academic Level ... 106

15. Arithmetic Mean and Standard Deviation for Personality Traits ... 107

16. Arithmetic Mean and Standard Deviation for Values ... 108

17. Arithmetic Mean and Standard Deviation for Social Networks ... 109

18. Arithmetic Mean and Standard Deviation for Role Model ... 110

19. Arithmetic Mean and Standard Deviation for Role Model ... 111

(16)

21. Arithmetic Mean and Standard Deviation for Entrepreneurial Behavior ... 113

22. Years of Businesses Ownership and Entrepreneurial Behavior ... 114

23. Years of Employment and Entrepreneurial Behavior Cross-tables ... 116

24. Academic Level and Personality Traits ... 117

25. Years of Businesses Ownership and Personality Traits Cross-tables ... 118

26. Religion and Personality Traits Cross-tables... 119

27. Social Networks and Personality Traits Cross-tables ... 119

28. Values and Personality Traits Cross-tables... 120

(17)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I gratefully acknowledge the support and patience of my wife, Rose Marie, amid the challenges of doctoral research and the demands of travel involved in distance learning. Now that my graduation is only a few months away, I look forward to traveling with Rose Marie and our three daughters to Montemorelos University and to enjoy to-gether the natural beauty and culture of Mexico for a few days.

I wish to thank my advisor, Dr. Karla Saraí Basurto Gutiérrez, for her competent and dedicated assistance, especially with respect to the final chapters of the doctoral thesis. I also appreciate the knowledge, guidance, and patience of doctors Omar Arodi Flores Laguna, Ronny Kountor, Stephen Pilgrim, and Pedro Gonzales Urbina. Special thanks to my colleagues, doctors Daniel Honoré, Ainsworth Joseph, Edson Bovell, and Ligia Holmes for the positive roles that they have played in coordinating and supporting the 2016-2019 PhD cohort in business administration.

(18)

CHAPTER I

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Introduction

The following sections provide a brief compilation of definitions of the latent var-iables of this research: (a) personality traits (b) values, (c) social networks, (d) role models, (e) family background, (f) religion, and (h) entrepreneurship.

Personality Traits

Kazdin (2000) defines personality traits as “consistent patterns of the way indi-viduals behave, feel, and think” (p. 142). Similarly, Rauch and Frese (2007) define per-sonality traits as “dispositions to exhibit a certain kind of response across various situ-ations” (p. 355). Thus, for a behavior or response to be called a personality trait it must show stability across time (Glăvan, Petrovan, & Radu, 2016; Roccas, Sagiv, Schwartz, & Knafo, 2002). With the development of the Five Factor Model of Personality (FFM; also called “The Big Five”), various personality traits can be arranged, measured, and analyzed under broad meaningful categories (Zhao & Seibert, 2006).

(19)

(Collins, Hanges, & Locke, 2004; Rauch & Frese, 2007; Tett, Steele, & Beauregard, 2003). In addition, while personality traits are usually inherent, some studies suggest that they can also be learned (Zhao & Seibert, 2006).

Values

Values can be thought of as deeply held ideals, enduring beliefs, and guiding at-titudes concerning the best or the most desirable ends and behaviors (Pepper, Jackson, & Uzzell, 2010). When individuals or institutions place esteem on behavior and aims that they deem to have intrinsic worth, they are exhibiting their values (Calder, 2014). Accord-ing to Rokeach (1973), values are goals that people seek to achieve and the criteria that we use to guide and evaluate human behavior. While it has become more common for organizations to develop value statements, values are often not as explicit as beliefs, especially from the perspective of the individual.

Social Networks

(20)

social network, it is only one kind of social network.

Role Model

According to Bandura (1971), a major proponent of social learning theory is, “most of the behaviors that people display are learned, either deliberately or inadvertently, through the influence of example” (p. 5) and in most cases, a good example is a far better teacher than trial and error. Role modeling takes place when a person learns through observing and adopting the example of others rather than by having a direct experience (Bandura, 1971; Bosma, Hessels, Schutjens, Van Praag, & Verhuel, 2012; Scherer, Ad-ams, & Wiebe, 1989). The person or persons whose example is being followed is a role model to the learner.

Family Background

The family is the primary place in which socialization occurs (Saeed, Muffatto, & Yousafzai, 2014). Young people embrace values, develop skills, and learn about social roles under the influence of parents and other family members. Therefore, family back-ground refers to the kind of socialization, resources, and support that have been given to individuals by their family in preparation for the challenges and opportunities of life.

Religion

(21)

religion is primarily a set of codified beliefs that is sometimes interpreted as facilitating division rather than unity because of its exclusive doctrines and rituals as well as its focus on formal structure; however, spirituality is personal and is viewed as tolerant, open-minded, universal, and developing outside of organized religion. Other studies do not make such a sharp distinction between religion and spirituality but rather emphasize the following four universal dimensions of religion that can apply across countries and cultures: believing, bonding, behaving, and belonging (Bloom & Arikan, 2012; Hoogen-doorn, Rietveld, & Van Stel, 2016). These “Big Four” dimensions of religion encapsulate universal components of all religions, which are: (a) belief in a transcendent God or gods as well as beliefs about a variety of things such as human nature, final judgement, and the meaning of life, (b) rituals that provide for self-transcendent experiences that generate strong emotions and help to bond the believer with the deity/deities that he or she worships, and with other believers, and also with the inner self, (c) moral standards that govern behavior, (d) membership/participation in a community of believers (So-roglou, 2011).

Entrepreneurship/Entrepreurial Behavior

(22)

to empower individuals, provide employment in local communities, increase market choices, and improve national economic growth. As a result of the positive conse-quences of entrepreneurial activity, recent scholarship has sought to better understand what factors influence such activities and how entrepreneurship can be engendered (Bjornskov & Foss, 2016; Bradley & Klein, 2016; Mustapha & Selvaraju, 2015).

Hoogendoorn et al. (2016) noted two prevailing conceptions of entrepreneur-ship: the view of entrepreneurship as an occupation or as a behavior. As an occupation, it involves owning and managing a business at one’s own risk; as a type of behavior, it involves perceiving, exploiting, and creating economic opportunities. Similarly, Griebel et al. (2014) emphasized that entrepreneurial behavior involves more than starting and owning new ventures, it includes perceiving opportunities, risk-taking, and innovation. According to Bradley and Klein (2016), entrepreneurship goes beyond such things as starting small to medium size businesses and engaging in profit-making new enter-prises; it involves autonomy, creativity, and problem solving for the purpose of enhanc-ing the quality of life and makenhanc-ing the world a better place.

Definition of Terms

Although most of the above variables have previously been defined during the process of describing them, this section gives a brief definition of key terms that are used in this study.

Religion. A way of life that revolves around worshiping and serving God and/or supernatural beings. It involves fundamental beliefs, morality, membership in a community of believers, and transcendent experiences.

(23)

understand the world and conduct their lives in relation to God/gods.

Values. Deeply held ideas and convictions regarding how people and the world should operate and what is important.

Network. Intentional interaction between people in social or professional set-tings.

Personality Traits. Common habitual ways of behaving, responding, and per-ceiving among individuals that are generally stable across time.

Role Model. A person whose example we are motivated to follow.

Entrepreneurship/entrepreneurial behavior. Activities associated with starting, owning, and managing a business or producing marketable innovations—all of which deal with risks.

Mission. The main purpose that an organization or person seeks to fulfill.

Stewardship. Management of resources that have been entrusted to one’s care. Sabbath. A specific day for rest from work and worship of God.

Health/health message. A set of biblically-based ideas and practices concern-ing the best way to promote and care for people’s health.

Christian/AdventistEducation. A set of ideas and practices, based on biblical prin-ciples, concerning the best way to improve the mind, body, and spirit of human beings.

ASI. An abbreviation for Adventist Laymen’s Services and Industries, a

grass-roots organization that is dedicated to advancing the mission of the Seventh -day Adventist Church through services and outreach activities in business, industries, and ministry organizations.

(24)

Relationship between Variables

This section describes the relationships between the main categories of independ-ent variables and the dependindepend-ent variable (independ-entrepreneurship/independ-entrepreneurial behavior). These relations are as follows: (a) personality traits and entrepreneurship, (b) values and entrepreneurship, (c) social networks and entrepreneurship, (d) role models and entre-preneurship, (e) personality traits, role models, and entreentre-preneurship, (f) family back-ground and entrepreneurship, (g) family backback-ground, role models, values, personality traits, and entrepreneurship, (h) religion and entrepreneurship, (i) religion, values, and entrepreneurship, (j) religion, social networks and entrepreneurship, (k) religion, role models, and entrepreneurship, (l) religion, personality traits, and entrepreneurship.

Personality Traits and Entrepreneurship

Rauch and Frese (2007) emphasized that “theories of entrepreneurship must take the dynamics of personality into account, and model building needs to consider person-ality factors when predicting business success” (p. 354). For example, Zhao and Seibert (2006) found correlations between some of the dimensions of the FFM framework with entrepreneurial behavior. Several individual personality traits have also been correlated with entrepreneurial activity, such as, need for achievement, innovativeness, locus of control, generalized self-efficacy, need for autonomy, proactivity, and risk-taking/toler-ance (Binti Shamsudin, Manun, Nawi, Nasir, & Zakaria, 2017; Karimi et al., 2017; Mus-tapha & Selvaraju, 2015; Rauch & Frese, 2007; Zhao & Seibert, 2006).

Values and Entrepreneurship

(25)

example, Parboteeah, Walter, and Block (2015) observed that industriousness, thrift, and the ability to cope with uncertainty are positively related to entrepreneurial perfor-mance. Also, Wyrwich (2015) identified the values of autonomy and “mastery” (chal-lenging existing conditions) as important to entrepreneurship.

Role Model and Entrepreneurship

Some scholars have argued that role models are significant factors in helping people to choose a career path (Bandura, 1986). Scherer, Adams, and Wiebe (1989) note that a person will likely choose an occupation if he or she has observed role mod-els attaining success in that occupation or career path. Bosma, Hessel, Schutjens, Van Praag, and Vehuel (2012) emphasized that role models are an important influence in people’s choice to become entrepreneurs.

Social Networks and Entrepreneurship

(26)

of one person being inspired to follow the example of another.

Personality Traits, Role Models, and Entrepreneurship

Certain personality traits that are conducive to entrepreneurship, such as self-efficacy and risk-taking, have been positively correlated with role modeling (Bosmaet al., 2012; De Clercq & Arenius, 2006). Hence, entrepreneurial role models can inspire others to mimic the personality characteristics of an effective entrepreneur.

Family Background and Entrepreneurship

Bindah (2017) summarized research on links between the family and entrepre-neurship by observing that a family can influence preference for entrepreneurial careers in a variety of ways, such as by providing knowledge, skills, and/or financial resources that are necessary for entrepreneurial leadership and, in some cases, by exposing chil-dren to the family business. Supporting this point, studies indicate that chilchil-dren whose parents are entrepreneurs have a greater chance of becoming entrepreneurs than those whose family has no entrepreneurial background (Lindquist, Sol, & Van Praag, 2015; Saeed et al., 2014; Wyrwich, 2015).

Religion and Entrepreneurship

(27)

influenced by the culture that religion helped to create on a macro scale (Griebel et al., 2014; Henley, 2016; Hoogendoorn et al., 2016; Nunziata & Rocco, 2016; Parboteeah, Walter, & Block, 2015; Rogers, 2014; Zelekha, Avnimelech, & Sharabi, 2014). For ex-ample, Hoogendoorn et al. (2016) found that internal belief in God rather than religious manifestations, practices, and affiliations were correlated with business ownership rates. Hoogendoorn et al. (2016) also articulated succinctly the indirect relationship between religious beliefs and entrepreneurship: “Religious beliefs are believed to be socially em-bedded in society and part of informal institutions with persistent influence on the long-term character of that society economy” (p.522).

Religion, Values, and Entrepreneurship

Religion can influence values that are conducive to entrepreneurship at individ-ual, local, and macro levels. Rogers (2014) showed that two main values—spending time with family and helping others—motivated several church-attending females, es-pecially Evangelical Protestants, to start their own business. Similarly, the research of Griebel et al. (2014) suggests that prioritizing family, exhibiting good character, and helping others are values that motivate Christian entrepreneurs to start their own busi-ness as well as to integrate their religious values in their workplace. Other scholars show that religion can shape on a macro level values and institutions that are conducive to entrepreneurial behavior (Henley, 2016; Hoogendoorn et al., 2016; Nunziata & Rocco, 2016; Parboteeah et al., 2015; Zelekha et al., 2014).

Religion, Social Networks, and Entrepreneurship

(28)

through social capital. Churches and other religious groups are social networks in the sense that they facilitate interaction between their members, and they support close re-lationships. Most religions have beliefs and practices that encourage their members to assemble for worship, fellowship, and ministry (Krause, 2006). In such settings, there are opportunities for strategic alliances or networking that can increase the member’s expo-sure and access to resources that are conducive to entrepreneurship.

Religion, Role Models, and Entrepreneurship

Most religions actively encourage role modeling or spiritual modeling under such means as religious education, mentorship, discipleship, and parenting (Oman & Thore-sen, 2003; Oman et al., 2012). Furthermore, religion provides multiple opportunities for its adherents to interact with and emulate roles models when they assemble for wor-ship, fellowwor-ship, and education (Oman et al., 2012). Moreover, the practice or habit of learning from spiritual model is transferable to other learning situations with role models in other areas (Oman et al., 2012).

Religion, Personality Traits, and Entrepreneurship

Certain personality traits that are related to entrepreneurial behavior can be influenced by certain aspects of religion. For example, generalized self-efficacy—a per-sonality characteristic that is related to entrepreneurial behavior—has been examined by Oman et al. (2012) in relation to how spiritual modeling can be used to foster this trait.

Problem Statement

(29)

denomination also has a history of entrepreneurial activity that has been associated with, and spurred on by, a desire to fulfill the church’s mission (Shurteff & Aoyagi, 2014). The gathering of Adventists for worship, fellowship, and collaboration in ministry on Sabbath and other times offers an opportunity for the sharing of ideas and the exchange of a variety of resources pertaining to entrepreneurship, if there is at least one entre-preneur in the congregation.

In recent times, entrepreneurial activity has been promoted and celebrated on national and international levels by Adventist Laymen’s Services and Industries (ASI), an independent grassroots organization dedicated to promoting the mission of the church through services and outreach activities in business, industries, and ministry organizations (Bond, 2013). An excerpt from ASI’s webpage promotion of its annual international convention for 2017 had the following:

Each year, ASI members, supporters, and friends gather at the ASI International Convention to encourage one another and exchange ideas vital to their lay-driven ministry goals. The annual convention is an energetic, inspiring affair where networks are formed, and plans are made that one individual or institution could never accomplish alone. Those who attend the convention return to their local churches inspired and equipped to start lay outreach efforts in their own workplaces and communities. (Called, Chosen, Committed, 2017, par. 1)

ASI is enthusiastically supported by the denomination’s top leaders (McChesney, 2016). While the focus of ASI is not entrepreneurship but rather outreach ministry, it at-tracts and motivates many entrepreneurs to advance the mission of the church in their context. In this way, ASI serendipitously promotes entrepreneurial behavior.

(30)

whether or not this Protestant denomination has some unique variables that affect en-trepreneurial activity among its members (Bond, 2013; Dana, 2009; McChesney, 2016; Shurteff & Aoyagi, 2014). Research indicates that Protestant Christianity generally has a positive relationship with entrepreneurship on a macro and micro scale through cer-tain variables such as values, beliefs, and social networks (Griebel et al., 2014; Henley, 2016; Hoogendoorn et al., 2016; Nunziata & Rocco, 2016; Rogers, 2014). However, scholarship in this area is still maturing with regard to identifying and explaining the relationships of different variables. What factors influence entrepreneurship among Ad-ventists Christians? By discovering what factors influence entrepreneurial behavior among Adventists, we can provide a concrete theoretical basis for developing ways to stimulate entrepreneurial endeavors among a larger portion of the members of the worldwide Seventh-day Adventist Church.

Problem

Can the variables of personality traits, values, social networks, role models, family background, and religion influence the entrepreneurial behavior of the Seventh-day Ad-ventist members mainly in the New York metropolitan region, as well as in various states of the United States?

In Figure 1 the theoretical model which aims to identify possible relationships between the independent variables and the dependent variable is presented.

Alternative Model

(31)

Figure 1. Theoretical Model for Entrepreneurial Behavior.

states of the United States?

In Figure 2 the theoretical model which aims to identify possible relationships between the independent variables and the dependent variable is presented.

Hypothesis

In order to provide statistical evidence and scientifically support to the conclu-sions, the present study states the following hypothesis:

H1. Personality traits, values, social networks, role model, family background, and

(32)

Figure 2. Theoretical Model for Social Network.

Alternative Hypothesis

In order to provide statistical evidence and scientifically support to the conclusions, the present study states the following hypothesis:

H1. Role model and entrepreneurial behavior influence the social networks of

Adventist business owners mainly in the New York metropolitan region as well as in various states of the United States.

Research Objectives

This section presents the statement of the actions to be carried out with the models proposed in this study.

1. Address a gap in knowledge regarding the relationship between Adventists and entrepreneurship by identifying and explaining the factors that are connected to entrepreneurial behavior among members of the Seventh-day Adventist Church.

2. Provide an empirical foundation from which recommendations to stimulate entrepreneurial behavior can be developed among a wider segment of the global Ad-ventist community.

(33)

variable of entrepreneurial behavior and the independent variables of personality traits, values, social networks, role model, family background, and religion.

4. Explain and evaluate the relationships between the aforementioned variables in this study.

5. Discuss findings and implications of the research. .

Justification

This study will build on previous scholarship that highlights the relationship be-tween religion and entrepreneurship by providing new knowledge on the factors that affect entrepreneurship among members of a worldwide religious organization, the Seventh-day Adventist Church. Such knowledge is beneficial to the Adventist denom-ination as well as the wider community. In this denomdenom-ination, this research provides an empirical basis on which to design ways to stimulate entrepreneurial activity in a larger segment of its community. This research is also valuable to a wider community in which entrepreneurial activities are drivers of economic growth in both local and na-tional economies. Thus, knowledge of factors that influence entrepreneurship or are correlative with this behavior is beneficial to governments, economists, academics, and a variety of other stakeholders.

(34)

Limitations

The study has the following limitations:

1. The research does not attempt to measure entrepreneurial performance or success. It only examines contextual factors among Seventh-day Adventist business owners that are related to entrepreneurial behavior.

2. It is unable to theoretically test the relationship, together, of all variables in the model.

3. The application of the instrument requires the participation of third parties.

Delimitations

1. This study does not present a representative sample of Adventist business owners from the various nations in which members of the Seventh-day Adventist Church live. It provides a random and convenience sample of Adventist business own-ers mainly in the New York metropolitan region as well as in other states of the USA.

2. It was a study with a quantitative, transversal, exploratory, descriptive, explan-atory and correlational empirical design; so therefore, it is not to solve problems that arise during the investigation.

3. Given the lack of theory of the entire model, some of the relationships between constructs were supported with a partial theoretical framework.

Assumptions

Below are some scenarios considered in the preparation of this research: 1. It is expected that the participants answered the instruments.

(35)

know the subject.

3. The research used as the basis of relations between constructs for this re-search are empirical studies, prepared with scientific rigor and are significantly accepta-ble.

Philosophical Background

In this section, a biblical/theological framework that centers on Creation, re-demption, restoration, and discipleship will be emphasized as the main philosophical background for the following variables: personality traits, values, social network s, role model, family background, religion, entrepreneurial behavior.

Personality Traits

(36)

when Jacob wrestled with the Lord, God gave him victory over his deceptive traits (Genesis 32:24-30). Thus, each person’s personality traits have been impacted by God’s design, hereditary factors, and personal choice.

Values

Values are shaped by what we believe. The biblical beliefs of Creation, sal-vation, grace, forgiveness, sin, human depravity, obedience, love, the golden rule, faith, justice, mercy, humility, divine calling, worship, putting God first, faithful work, integrity, providence, etc., have impacted the values of many people. Many of these beliefs and values are encapsulated in the Ten Commandments and Jesus’s Ser-mon on the Mount (see Exodus 20:1-17, and Matthew chapters 5-7). These values are also embedded in the narratives of both the Old and New Testaments.

Social Networks

(37)

reflect the unity and plurality of God. Note the usage of both singular and plural forms to refer to both God and mankind in Genesis 1:26-27: Then God said,

Let us make man in our image, according to our likeness; let them have do-minion over the fish of the sea, over the birds of the air, and over every creep-ing thcreep-ing the creeps on the earth. So, God created man in His own image, in the image of God He created him; male and female He created them.

The importance of humanity’s social dimension is further accentuated in the nar-rative of the creation of Eve and the subsequent marriage of Adam and Eve in Genesis 2:18-24. God declared in verse 18 of the foregoing passage, “It is not good that man should be alone; I will make him a helper comparable to him.” Once God created Eve, Adam found her to be a perfect companion—one who was a complement to him in a manner that none of the other creatures on earth could ever be. Other parts of Scrip-ture, especially Proverbs, highlight the importance of companionship and teamwork. For example, Proverbs 15:22 states, “Without counsel plans go awry, but in the multi-tude of counselors they are established”.

Role Model

(38)

(see John 1:43; Matthew 4:19, 9:9; 10:38, 16:24, 19:21, 28:19-20; Philippians 3:17; 1Timothy 4:12; 1Peter 2:21).

Family Background

The Creation narrative (Genesis chapters 1-2) along with the many stories and several teachings of Scripture highlight the family as a central institution through which God works to educate, mentor, and redemptively elevate humanity. For example, one of the commendations of God to Abraham focused on his leadership of his family in the way of the Lord:

For I have known him in order that he may command his children and his household after him that they keep the way of the Lord to do righteousness and justice that the Lord may bring to Abraham what He has spoken to him. (Genesis 18:19)

Moreover, God commanded every leader of the families within the nation of Is-rael to teach the knowledge of His law to their children (Deuteronomy 6:6-7, 20-25). God also instituted statutes to specifically protect and ensure the prosperity and conti-nuity of the family unit (e.g., Deuteronomy 25:5-10). In the New Testament, Ephesians 5:22-6:4 emphasizes key obligations of husbands, wives, and children in the family. This passage of Scripture also shows that marriage and the family in general were designed by God to reflect the love, unselfishness, unity, and orderly leadership of the Godhead.

Religion

(39)

knowledge of God’s salvation and the practice of righteous living is promoted and im-plemented in the world. However, the Bible only endorses a specific kind of religion— one that is rooted in the Holy Scripture, is Christ-centered, and makes a practical dif-ference in the lives of people (2Peter 1:16-22; James 1:26-27).

Entrepreneurial Behavior

Entrepreneurial behavior is one of the means by which human beings express the creativity, stewardship, and leadership that God designed mankind to exhibit. The Creation narrative shows that God entrusted Adam, the first human being, with the task of managing the Garden of Eden and naming the animals of the earth (Genesis 2:15-20). Moreover, when God created the first human beings, He specifically revealed that it was His design for mankind “to have dominion over” every living being on the earth. This phrase connotes leadership, care-taking, and work; and, because mankind is made in the image of God, such responsibilities must be done in a manner that is similar to how God governs the universe (Genesis1:26-27). Jesus’s parable of the talents in Matthew 25:14-30 implies that faithful and prudent work, as well as wise financial in-vestment, bring glory to God.

Study Organization

(40)

Chapter II presents a review of relevant literature concerning all the variables, the dimension of each construct, the relation of the constructs to each other, and perti-nent research on various variables. This literature review provides a solid scholarly background that helps to emphasize the social validity of the research.

The third chapter focuses on the research methodology of this study. It de-scribes the quantitative research design chosen for this study, the population and sam-ple of the study, the survey instrument in the form of a questionnarie, the validity and reliability of the instrument, the operationalization of the variables, the null hypotheses, the operationalization of the null hypotheses, the data collection strategy, and the data analysis method.

Chapter IV provides the detail results of the statistical analysis. This includes a summary of demographics findings, presentation of the arithmetic means and the cross-tabulation of relevant variables, assessment of hypotheses, and evaluation of theoretical and alternative models.

(41)

CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

Introduction

This study aims to explore the causal relationship between personality traits, values, social networks, role models, religion, and entrepreneurial behavior, according to a specific theoretical model, with Adventist business owners in the New York metro-politan region and other states of the USA.

This chapter presents a theoretical contribution on latent variables personality traits, values, network, role models, family background, religion, and entrepreneurial behavior. First, the importance and the dimensions of the variables are analyzed indi-vidually. Second, some relationships between the different constructs are described. Third, research on the different constructs is described.

Personality Traits

The importance and dimensions of personality traits are presented below.

Importance

(42)

of personality research, personality traits have been the object of fruitful studies within the past thirty years, especially with the development of the Five Factor Model, which classifies a multitude of personality characteristics under five broad categories (Grankvist & Kajonius, 2015; Leutner, Ahmetoglu, Akhtar, & Chamorro-Premuzic, 2014; Park-Leduc, Feldman, & Bardi, 2015). Narrow personality traits have also re-ceived considerable scholarly examination in recent years (Foster, 2017; Frese & Gielnik, 2014).

Dimensions

As noted in the previous chapter, personality traits are defined as consistent pat-terns of individual response across time and various situations (Kazdin, 2000; Rauch & Frese, 2007). Scholars have examined both the broad and narrow dimensions of per-sonality traits. The Five Factor Model of perper-sonality traits is the most widely researched taxonomy of personality characteristics (Park-Leduc et al., 2015). Its validity and reliabil-ity have been confirmed across cultures and time (McCrae & Costa, 2013). In this model, various individual traits are classified under five broad dimensions of personality. The five broad dimensions of FFM are described below.

Extraversion/introversion: This construct describes the extent to which people are assertive, outgoing, talkative, and enthusiastic. Extraverts tend to be very sociable and cheerful; they seek to be around people and gravitate toward excitement and stim-ulation. Conversely, introverts tend to be quiet, reserved, and independent.

(43)

and gullible. People with low agreeableness are often self-centered, manipulative, sus-picious, and ruthless.

Conscientiousness: This construct describes a person’s motivation toward

achieving goals, organizing and fulfilling tasks, being dependable, and working hard. Accordingly, people who are low in conscientiousness would tend to be lackluster and carefree in educational achievement and job performance.

Openness: This dimension refers to a person’s level of intellectual curiosity. A person with a high degree of openness is creative, imaginative, innovative, reflective, and not bound by tradition. Those with a low degree of openness tend to be unanalyti-cal, narrow in interests, and conventional.

Emotional stability/neuroticism: This describes the extent to which people reflect positive emotions and attitudes. People with high emotional stability gravitate toward positive emotions and attitudes such as confidence, optimism, calmness, and serenity. On the other hand, people with high neuroticism tend to be influenced by negative emotions and attitudes such as self-consciousness, anxiety, nervousness, impulsive-ness, depression, hostility, and vulnerability.

(44)

innovativeness, proactive personality, generalized self-efficacy, stress tolerance, need for achievement, need for autonomy, internal locus of control, and risk-taking.

Some of the factors identified as personality traits in Rauch and Frese (2007) are referred to as motivational factors or cognitive factors in other studies. For example, Hmieleski and Corbett (2006) classified self-efficacy, locus of control, need for auton-omy, risk-taking, and tolerance for ambiguity as motives for entrepreneurship in distinc-tion to personality traits such as the Big Five factors.

Values

The importance and dimensions of values are presented below.

Importance

(45)

(Souchon, Maio, Hanel, & Bardin, 2017).

Dimensions

Dobewall and Strack (2014) noted that the concept of values has suffered from definitional inconsistencies, and that the term values is used to refer to “diverse

per-sonal and social value systems, worldviews, as well as ideologies” (p. 240). Although both values and personality traits have been used to understand and predict human behavior, these variables are distinct (Grankvist & Kajonius, 2015; Roccas et al., 2002). Roccas et al. (2002) emphasized the difference between personality traits and values by noting that traits are “enduring dispositions”, but values are “enduring goals.” Ac-cordingly, “traits describe what people are like” but values show what they consider to be important. While we use both values and personality traits to explain human behav-ior, we only use values to justify choices and actions (p. 799).

As mentioned in the previous chapter, Rokeach (1973) defined values as the goals that people seek to achieve and the criteria that we use to evaluate human be-havior. Rokeach was among the early developers of a value system. His value survey entailed 18 instrumental values—reflecting desirable ways of behavior; and 18 terminal values—reflecting desirable final states of existence. His work also exposed the need for a coherent theory for measuring values and for a more comprehensive system of value dimensions (De Raad & Van Oudenhoven, 2008).

(46)

20 countries and 13 languages. Schwartz’s theory and model has since been refined and tested in more countries (Schwartz et al., 2012). The consistency and validity of Schwartz’s model have been confirmed in approximately 67 countries and in a variety of contexts (Partala & Kujala, 2016; Sandy, Gosling, Schwartz, & Koelkebeck, 2017). Although Schwartz’s value theory is not the only cross-cultural model of human of val-ues, it is the most widely used model (De Raad & Van Oudenhoven, 2008; Dobewall & Strack, 2014; Morris & Schindehutte, 2005; Park-Leduc et al., 2015).

(47)

dimensions of values arranged in conflict with their opposite motivational value: Self-transcendence vs. Self-enhancement, Openness to change vs. Conservation.

The findings of several studies show a complementary relationship between the broad dimensions of the Big Five personality traits and the ten overarching dimensions of Schwartz’s value theory, implying a close connection between personality traits and values (De Raad & Van Oudenhoven, 2008; Grankvist & Kajonius, 2015; Park-Leduc et al., 2015; Roccas et al., 2002). Grankvist and Kajonius’s (2015) summary of the findings of several studies show that the personality trait openness to experience has been positively related to the value dimensions of universalism, self-direction, and stim-ulation, but negatively related to power, conformity, tradition, and security. According to Grankvist and Kajonius, such findings imply that there is a positive link between the personality trait openness to experience and the value type openness to change and other values located at the self-transcendent endpoint in Schwartz’s model. Similarly, positive relationships were also found between the personality dimension agreeable-ness and the values of benevolence, conformity, and tradition—which indicates that

agreeable persons were close to the self-transcendent and conservation endpoints on the two bi-polar axes of Schwartz’s value model.

(48)

related to the openness to change and self-enhancement points on the bi-polar axes of the value model. Grankvist and Kajonius (2015) found similar results to the above-mentioned findings in their own study, with the only exception being that previous stud-ies held that the personality trait of neuroticism had no positive correlation with a value dimension and only a negative relationship with achievement. However, the findings of Grankvist and Kajonius indicate that neuroticism had a significant relationship with con-formity and a less significant relationship with self-direction and stimulation.

An important aspect of the discussion on the dimensions of values is empha-sized by Morris and Schindehutte (2005): namely, that values exist at different levels. For example, some values are believed to be more universal, such as those that are related to basic temporal issues of human life. Others value are more relevant to the mores of a social class or the polity of a nation; and others are specific to a particular institution, such as work/occupation or marriage.

Social Networks

The importance and dimensions of social networks are presented below.

Importance

(49)

benefits that people receive from them (Cohen, 2004; Holt-Lunstad, Smith, & Layton, 2010; Holtzman, DeClerck, Turcotte, Lisi, & Woodworth, 2017; Nabi, Prestin, & So, 2013). Social networks can also offer access to material resources, important infor-mation, instrumental assistance with various task or problems, and diverse perspec-tives (Bloom & Arikan, 2012; Jurkuvėnas, Zamalijeva, Pakalniškienė, Kairys, & Bagdo-nas, 2017; Odek, 2014; Preez & Meyer, 2016).

Dimensions

(50)

frequency of interaction. These two studies serve as examples of how age, different contexts, frequency of interaction, and other variables interact with network size.

Bloom and Arikan (2012) observed that attitudinal diversity in social networks provides an opportunity to hear and examine various opinions on a subject; conse-quently, heterogeneity in social networks reduce confidence in the correctness of one’s attitude and personal opinions. In such cases, individuals are more motivated to reex-amine and revise their points of view in order to be in harmony with the perspective of those in their network. In addition, individuals are also more open to ideas from external sources. However, the more homogenous social networks become, individuals in the network become more confident, less ambivalent about their attitudes and opinions, and less open to different views.

(51)

ties and more structural holes, enabled entrepreneurs to recognize risks and avoid busi-ness failure.

Furthermore, Ying et al. (2017) found that entrepreneurial optimism had a posi-tive and significant influence on social network size and a posiposi-tive but not significant impact on network heterogeneity. Social network size and heterogeneity also had a positive relationship to new venture performance. However, while social network size mediated the relationship between entrepreneurial optimism and new venture perfor-mance, network heterogeneity did not.

Role Models

The importance and dimensions of role models are presented below.

Importance

Role modeling is a very important variable in any context where learning is ex-pected to occur (Bandura, 1986). It is essential to the socialization of both young people and adults; it is also crucial to the development of self-concept (Gibson, 2003). Accord-ingly, research indicates that role models and role modeling are significant to a variety of disciplines and contexts, such as academic and professional education (Amalba, Abantanga, Scherpbier, & Van Mook, 2017; McGrath & Sinclair, 2013), medicine and healthcare (Burgess, Oates, & Goulston, 2016; Passi & Johnson, 2016; Vinales, 2015), and religion (Oman et al., 2012). Role models are also instrumental to both career se-lection and career development (Durbin & Tomlinson, 2014).

Dimensions

(52)

attributes and behavior can be observed. There must also be someone to observe and learn from the actions and attributes of the role model. Gibson (2003) placed emphasis on the self-selection and meaning-making aspects of role modeling from the standpoint of the observer/learner. In this regard, Gibson defined role modeling as “a cognitive process in which individuals actively observe, adapt, and reject attributes of multiple role models” (pp. 592-593). Based on interviews with a total of 43 employees of two different professional service firms, Gibson derived the following four dimensions of role models from the perspective of the observer: positive/negative, global/specific, close/distant, and up/across/down.

People who are influenced by a positive role model will seek to emulate the de-sired behavior and/or attitude. Conversely, people who are influenced by a negative role model will seek to learn from the mistakes of the role model and use him or her as an example of how not to behave. Global role models offer a variety of exemplary attributes that the observer wish to emulate—including behavior, skills, traits, and attitudes—while,

specific role models are those who offer a small set of attributes for emulation. Close role models are people with whom the emulator or observer interacts with frequently, but

distant role models are those whom the emulator observe from a distant or interacts with periodically. Role models who are up are those who are in a higher status than the learner; however, role models who are across or down are those who are either peers or subordinates to the observer, or they may be those whose status is unclear (Gibson, 2003).

(53)

do not need to be in an interactive relationship with the observer. People can be in-fluenced by multiple role models with different degrees of relational distance. Gibson is an important source for the conceptual dimensions of role models (Durbin & Tomlinson, 2014).

Other dimensions that have received scholarly attention are number of role models

and the frequency of interaction with the role models (Austin & Nauta, 2016). For example, Austin and Nauta (2016) found that the number of role models and frequency of interac-tion with the role models have a significant correlainterac-tion with entrepreneurial inteninterac-tion.

Family Background

The importance and dimensions of family background are presented below.

Importance

(54)

Hjalmarsson, Lindquist, & Sandberg, 2016; Parr & Bonitz, 2015). Family background also affects the probability and rate of homeownership (Karhula, 2015).

Dimensions

Scholars have examined various dimensions of family background in relation to factors such as academic achievement, economic advancement, career selection and performance, and health and well-being. For example, economic status, parents’ edu-cation level, and parental expectations have been shown to be influential on the above-mentioned factors (Kim, 2014; Parr & Bonitz, 2015; Witteveen & Attewell, 2017). Jimé-nez-Iglesias et al. (2015) identify the following dimensions of the family that positively influence the health and well-being of adolescents: parental affection, parental promotion of autonomy, and family activities. Likewise, Fantuzzo et al. (2013) discussed how the validity of the following three broad dimensions of the Family Involvement Questionnaire have been empirically verified using a shorter version of the said questionnaire: home-based involvement, school-home-based involvement, and home-school conferencing. These three dimensions—which are largely based on the verified premise that parental involve-ment in their children’s education has a significant positive impact on academic achieve-ment—have been used to predict academic achievement among students.

(55)

aspects of family relationships: support, expression of opinion, and angry conflict within a family.

Religion

The importance and dimensions of religion are presented below.

Importance

Religion has been and is presently central in the lives of many people around the world (Hoogentdoorn, Rietveld, & Stel, 2016; Musek, 2017; Park, Dougherty, & Neubert, 2016). Scholars have shown that religion and religious beliefs are significant in providing foundational ideas and a system of meaning on how people should under-stand the world, conduct themselves, and organized society (Clarke, 2016; Hoogen-doorn et al., 2016). In emphasizing the subtle but significant role of religious beliefs in society, Hoogendoorn et al. (2016) state, “religious beliefs are believed to be socially embedded in society and part of informal institutions with a persistence influence on the long-term character of the society’s economy” (p. 522). Research has highlighted a positive role for certain religious beliefs on important areas of people’s lives such as moral and ethical standards (Clark, 2016), health and well-being (Hayward, Krause, Ironson, & Pargament, 2016; Hossain & Rizvi, 2016; Testoni, Visintin, Capozza, Car-lucci, & Shams, 2016), and career preference and business decisions (Dougherty et al., 2013; Johnmark, Soemunti, Laura, Munene, & Balunywa, 2016).

Dimensions

(56)

The cognitive dimension “describes the knowledge and beliefs that individuals have concerning religion” (p. 450), while the normative dimension refers to how religion is practiced in association with society’s values, norms, and assumptions. As explained in the previous chapter, recent scholarship has identified the following four universal dimensions of religion: believing, bonding, behaving, and belonging (Bloom & Arikan, 2012; Hoogentdoorn et al., 2016; Saroglou, 2011). The dimension believing—which is similar to the cognitive dimension in Parboteah et al. (2015)—encompasses both

codified beliefs as well as general beliefs and values concerning the meaning and purpose of life. Because religious beliefs tend to impact the other broad dimensions of religion, we will focus particularly on the dimension of beliefs below.

In general, what people believe influence how they view the world and how they conduct themselves. Benabou and Tirole (2016) point out that beliefs satisfy “important psychological and functional needs” (p. 141) and that people often cling to their beliefs despite evidence to the contrary because they attach value to such beliefs. However, people also revise their beliefs when confronted with new evidence, especially when such evidence is favorable to them.

While religious beliefs have some similarities with other kinds of beliefs, religious beliefs are distinguished by the fact that they revolve around faith in a supernatural being or supernatural forces (Iannaccone, 1998).

The following section will provide a synopsis of important religious beliefs and values among Seventh-day Adventists that might influence entrepreneurial behavior.

Sabbath Observance

(57)

and worship is a fundamental belief and a core value of the Seventh-day Adventist Church. Members therefore refrain from work and business transactions from sunset Friday to sunset Saturday in order to spend unencumbered time with God (Seventh-day Adventists Believe, 2005).

Marriage and the Family

Like other Christian denominations, Adventists value marriage and family life. According to the biblical book of Genesis, the Sabbath and marriage are two institutions that were established at creation and before the fall of Adam and Eve. Marriage is a divinely designed union between a man and a woman; it is the centerpiece of family life (Seventh-day Adventists Believe, 2005).

Mission

The mission of the Seventh-day Adventist church is encapsulated in the follow-ing words of Jesus in Matthew 28:19-20:

Go therefore and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, teaching them to observe all things that I have commanded you; and lo, I am with you always, even to the end of the age. Amen

(58)

mature followers who will in turn carry forward the same mission in preparation for Christ’s Second Coming (Seventh-day Adventist Believe, 2005). The importance of be-ing personally prepared, as well as helpbe-ing others to be prepared, for the second return of Jesus Christ is reflected in the name Adventist, which comes from the word advent, meaning coming. Hence, Seventh-day Adventists are Christians who are preparing themselves and the world for the Second Advent of Jesus Christ. Accordingly, the mis-sion statement of the Seventh-day Adventist Church defines its mismis-sion thus: “to call all people to become disciples of Jesus Christ, to proclaim the everlasting gospel em-braced by the three angels’ messages (Revelation 14:6-12), and to prepare the world for Christ’s soon return” (Seventh-day Adventist Church, 2009).

Helping Others/Service

Helping others is an integral value of the Adventist community and is also an essential dimension of its mission. On an organizational level, this value is very visible in Adventist Disaster Relief Agency (ADRA) and Adventist Community Service—official nonprofit organizations that have brought material, medical, and emotional relief to mil-lions of people throughout the world. This value is also manifested in the services of privately-operated nonprofit Adventist organizations such as Maranatha, which travels around the world to build homes, schools, and church facilities as well as to provide medical and educational services for poor and disadvantaged communities (Nagy et al., 2017; Seventh-day Adventist Church, 2017a/b).

Stewardship

(59)

Church. Stewardship in its broadest sense emphasize the principle that human beings in general and believers have been entrusted with managing God’s resources. Therefore, our time, talent, money, possessions, and life are to be managed in such a way that they glorify God and benefit humanity. Stewardship also entails caring for the environment and exhibiting honesty and integrity in business. One of the key features of stewardship is the tithing principle, which requires that each church member return 10% of his or her income to God in order to support the work of ministers of the gospel. Adventists are also encouraged to give an additional offering besides the tithe in order to support the ministry of the local church and defray its expenses. Tithing and stewardship, in general, require careful planning as well as a degree of unselfishness in how we live and use our re-sources (Rees, 1995; Seventh-day Adventist Believe, 2005).

The Gift of Prophecy and the Writings of Ellen G. White

(60)

that have a positive association with entrepreneurship such as independent thinking, self-directed learning, innovation, community outreach, and owning industries and busi-nesses (Fortin & Moon, 2013; Seventh-day Adventist Believe, 2005).

Healthful Living

Healthful living is a core value and one of the fundamental beliefs of the church. It is also an important component of the mission of the church in that health and health ministry is connected to the task of leading people to become mature disciples of Jesus Christ. Adventists’ desire to promote healthful living have spawned a variety of health industries such as vegetarian and plant-based manufacturers and retailers, as well as medical and preventive medicine institutions (Dana, 2009; Seventh-day Adventist Be-lieve, 2005; Shurteff & Aoyagi, 2014).

Christian Education

(61)

Spiritual Growth

Seventh-day Adventists believe that God desires for Christians to grow spiritu-ally and to become mature disciples of Jesus Christ. Spiritual maturity develops as Christians learn to do the following on a consistent basis amid difficult and challenging circumstances: depend upon God, study the Scriptures, exhibit faith and patience, deny self, and deal lovingly with others. The mentorship and fellowship of other believers are of great benefit to spiritual growth (Seventh-day Adventist Believe, 2005).

Entrepreneurship

The importance and dimensions of entrepreneurship are presented below.

Importance

Heads of state, policy makers, and scholars from diverse disciplines view en-trepreneurship as a key factor in promoting economic growth, job creation, and sus-tainable development (Adamu & Mansur, 2017; Ireland & Webb, 2007; Kayed & Has-san, 2010). In seeking to exploit opportunities and produce solutions to problems, entrepreneurs and entrepreneurial firms often design innovative products and services, which in turn enhance economic development (Fellnhofer, 2017; Santandreu-Masca-rell, Garzon, & Knorr, 2013). Entrepreneurship is therefore esteemed as a pivotal strat-egy for the advancement of a country’s economy (Binti Shamsudin, Manun, Nawi, Na-sir, & Zakaria, 2017; Mustapha & Sevarju, 2015).

Dimensions

(62)

(2014), research at the micro level examines why a person chooses to become an entrepreneur, while research at the macro level focuses on environmental variables that impact or interface with entrepreneurship such as norms, structures, institutions, local culture, and economic atmosphere. Wu and Gu (2017) advocate a macro integra-tive approach to entrepreneurship education that considers factors that are broader than economics, such as the development of a mindset that is not merely concerned with starting new business ventures and increasing revenues but is also focused on benefitting society. Lorne (2009) emphasized that while micro entrepreneurship is es-sentially focused on the interest of the entrepreneur, macro entrepreneurship is con-cerned with a win-win situation for multiple stakeholders.

(63)

improve the quality of life of others. Whereas the traditional entrepreneur’s bottom line is financial performance and perhaps other related self-interests, the social entrepre-neur is focused on both economic interests and social value (Phillip et al., 2015).

There are other dimensions of entrepreneurship that have received scholarly attention, such as international entrepreneurship (Kosała, 2015; Pisano, Ireland, Hitt, & Webb, 2007) and immigrant entrepreneurship (Guerra & Patuelli, 2014; Lofstrom, 2017; Nakhaie, 2015). However, among the most researched components/dimensions of entrepreneurial activities are self-employment (Audretsch, Bönte, & Tamvada, 2013; Parboteeah et al., 2015; Reuschke & Van Ham, 2013) start-up businesses (Arafat & Saleem, 2017; Henley 2016), small and medium size business ownership (Ahmad & Muhammad Arif, 2016; Aleksandr, Jaroslav, Ludmila, & Pavla, 2016; Ćeranić, 2014), family firms (Sabah, Carsrud, & Kocak, 2014), and marketable innovation (Fellnhofer, 2017; Kosała, 2015).

In fact, some scholars link growth through innovation to the very definition of entrepreneurship (Davidsson, Achtenhagen, & Naldi, 2007; Sabah et al., 2014). For example, Sabah et al. (2014) distinguish entrepreneurship from an entrepreneurial event by claiming that starting a new venture is an entrepreneurial event that does not necessarily amount to entrepreneurship; what constitutes genuine entrepreneurship is growth through the introduction of new products and services. Accordingly, Sabah et al. (2014) define entrepreneurship as “the creation of a new economic activity in which growth is achieved through the introduction of new products and services” (p. 310).

(64)

and opportunity recognition leads to innovation in terms of new marketable products and services that entrepreneurship has genuinely occurred.

Relationship between Variables

Personality Traits and Entrepreneurship

Personality traits have been one of the most widely research factors for entre-preneurial behavior in the past and they still have relevance in present scholarship (Leutner et al., 2014; Rauch & Frese, 2007; Zhao & Seibert, 2006). In the past, entre-preneurial research looked at personality characteristics apart from other internal and external factors that are conducive to entrepreneurship; however, in recent times there is recognition that personality traits are only one category of multiple categories of fac-tors that can influence entrepreneurial activity (Adamu & Mansur, 2017; Chaudhary, 2017; Tang, J. & Tang, 2007).