Assessing intercultural communication in oral presentations of students of Architecture in English

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(1)FACULTY OF HUMANITIES. Assessing intercultural communication in oral presentations of students of Architecture in English. Author: Yanet Sánchez Carrera, B.A Ed. Supervisor: Professor Juana Idania Pérez Morales. PhD.. Master’s Degree in English Language for Intercultural Communication. July, 2013.

(2) We certify that the present Master´s Degree Thesis was carried out at the Universidad Central “Marta Abreu” de Las Villas in order to finish the Master´s Degree Program English Language for Intercultural Communication. We give our approval for it to be partially or totally used by the institution for educational purposes. This thesis can be neither published nor discussed in any forum without the approval of the University.. _________________________ Signature of the Author. The signatures from above certify that the present thesis has all the necessary requisites and has been carried out under the agreements of the institution authorities.. ___________________________ Signature of the Advisor. ______________________ Head of Department.

(3) Take advantage of every opportunity to practice your communication skills so that when important occasions arise, you will have the gift, the style, the sharpness, the clarity, and the emotions to affect other people. Jim Rohn.

(4) Dedication. To my family and all those who somehow helped me throughout this project..

(5) Acknowledgements I would like to express my deep gratitude to professor Juana Idania Perez Morales PhD., my research supervisor, for her patient guidance, enthusiastic encouragement and useful critiques of this research work. My special thanks are extended to the staff of the Master Program English language for Intercultural communication that contribute with their knowledge and guidance to accomplish this research work My eternal gratitude to the staff and authorities of Construction Faculty for their assistance and cooperation in the collection of relevant data. I would also like to extend my thanks to students of Architecture for their kind cooperation to the completion of my project work. Finally, an honorable mention goes to my parents, husband and children for their understanding and support throughout my study..

(6) Abstract In modern society people with different cultural backgrounds are engaged in highly competitive settings and they need to use English language for effective intercultural communication.. Students of Architecture at Central University. “Marta Abreu” of Las Villas (UCLV) should be able to communicate in English effectively since they are involved in some international collaboration projects with Belgium, Germany and Switzerland where English is used as a lingua franca. They had difficulties in relation to the intercultural awareness necessary to carry out oral presentations about their project designs to succeed in multicultural environments. Since assessment, at a great extent, fosters learning, the overall aim of this research was to provide students of Architecture with the criteria to assess intercultural communication in oral presentations of project designs in English. The proposal included some criteria and rubrics for assessing intercultural communication in oral presentations in this context, a methodology to carry them out and a website that comprised instructional materials for the course English IV..

(7) Table of Contents Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 3 Chapter I. Theoretical framework for understanding the assessment of intercultural communication in oral presentations of students of Architecture in English .......................................................................... 12 1.1 Relevance of English as a language for intercultural communication .................................................. 13 1.2 From communicative competence to intercultural communicative competence ............................... 15 1.2.1- Defining intercultural communication, intercultural competence and intercultural communicative competence ................................................................................................................................................ 20 1.3 Intercultural communication in the professional training of Architecture students. Participation of the Construction Faculty in international collaboration projects ............................................................... 23 1.3.1 Cultural characteristics of the countries involved in collaboration projects with the Architecture faculty: Germany, Belgium and Switzerland .............................................................................................. 24 2. Intercultural communication in oral presentations of Architecture students’ project designs. ............ 27 2.1 Giving effective oral presentations ....................................................................................................... 27 2.2. Intercultural communication in oral presentations. Tips for effective intercultural oral presentations .................................................................................................................................................................... 30 2.3 Giving oral presentations of students of Architecture project designs ................................................ 32 Stages of the planning process of project designs...................................................................................... 32 3- Assessing intercultural communication in oral presentations in English ............................................... 33 3.1 Current trends in the assessment of English as a foreign language ................................................... 33 3.1.2 New trends influencing university language assessment practices .................................................. 35 3.2. Criteria for assessing oral presentations in English ............................................................................. 36 3.3. The use of rubrics and assessment sheets for assessing students’ oral communicative performance .................................................................................................................................................................... 38 Chapter II. Research methodological approach and needs analysis ......................................................... 44 2.1. Research methodological design ....................................................................................................... 44 2.2- - Sample Selection and Description ..................................................................................................... 45 1.

(8) 2.3- Research methods used....................................................................................................................... 48 2.4-Results analysis ..................................................................................................................................... 50 Chapter 3. Assessing intercultural communication in oral presentations. A proposal for students of Architecture project designs in English....................................................................................................... 59 3.1 Defining assessment criteria and descriptors for assessing intercultural communication in oral presentations of architecture project designs ............................................................................................ 60 3.2. Methodology for delivering intercultural oral presentations of Architecture students project designs .................................................................................................................................................................... 65 3.3. Describing the website Assessing intercultural oral communication in Architecture studies ............ 66 Conclusions ................................................................................................................................................. 75 Recommendations ...................................................................................................................................... 76 Bibliography ................................................................................................................................................ 77. 2.

(9) Introduction Nowadays, modern society places challenging demands on individuals in their professional lives as a result of the globalization process that imposes a fundamental change in the way of approaching business and workplace success. People with different cultural backgrounds are engaged in highly competitive and fast changing businesses, and to succeed in this context they need to use the language for effective and clear intercultural communication. In order to face these complex challenges they are required to develop a wide range of competencies to perform in various contexts. The Definition and Selection of Competences Project, launched by the member countries of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development defined eight key competencies which describe the essential knowledge, skills and attitudes related to each of them (DeSECo project, 2003). They are not determined by arbitrary decisions about what personal qualities and cognitive skills are desirable, but by careful consideration of the psychological prerequisites for a successful life and well-functioning society .They are also determined by the nature of people‘s goals in relation to shaping the world, not just coping with it. One of these competences has to do with the use of tools for interacting effectively with the environment. These competences include language for communicating effectively in the mother tongue and in foreign languages associated with social and civic competences and cultural awareness for long-life learning. Another key competence of this program deals with social competence in terms of personal, interpersonal and intercultural competence in a foreign language and all forms of behavior that equip individuals to participate in an effective and constructive way in social and working life. An understanding of codes, conducts and customs of people in different environments is essential (DeSECo project, 2003). Therefore, intercultural communicative competence, which is the expected outcome of the insertion of interculturality in language and learning teaching, is a vital competence in our contemporary world, especially for specialists involved in mediating between people 3.

(10) such. as. diplomats,. language. teachers,. consultants,. journalists,. translators,. businessmen, etc.(Dervin, 2006) The two competences mentioned above are closely related to cultural awareness and expression which involve the appreciation of the importance of the creative expression of ideas, experiences and emotions in different media. So, intercultural awareness is necessary for two reasons. Firstly, it minimizes the possibility of misunderstandings and/or the causing of offense through intercultural mishaps. Secondly, it is a means to maximizing the potential of professional relationships through the utilization of intercultural differences productively. Thus, these key competences are interconnected and the emphasis in each case is considered necessary to build good relationships with people from other cultures. There are many theories that set principles for interpreting the basis of intercultural communication. For example: Theories focusing on effective outcomes; Theories focusing on accommodation or adaptation; Theories focusing on identity negotiation or management; Theories focusing on communication networks; Theories focusing on acculturation and adjustment among some others. These theories help to iron out possible ripples of misunderstandings by giving basic guidelines on how to address situations. These guidelines help prevent clashes between different cultural groups caused by misperceptions. In a nutshell, the main purpose of following such theories is to earn respect and tolerance for others since respect in all cultures around the world is a common language. Moreover, basic skills of intercultural communication are general communication skills that can be commonly used by all cultures and races. These skills are simply tweaked in a direction that takes the cultural limitation into consideration. An example of such communication skills in the intercultural environment is reflected in communicative situations, like, for example: to listen without judging, repeat what you understood, confirm meanings, give suggestions and acknowledge a mutual understanding.. 4.

(11) One activity within the professional environment in which intercultural communication should be carefully considered, is oral presentations.. Directors, managers,. salespeople, consultants, architects, and business personnel are regularly required to give oral presentations about their projects and ideas, sometimes, in multicultural settings. However, when they are asked to give a presentation to an audience from a different culture there are intercultural factors that can/might hinder the success of the presentation. University students as future professionals are also constantly involved in giving oral presentations in academic settings such as practical lessons, seminars, scientific events, term papers presentations, thesis dissertations, etc. and they have to show their knowledge of a given content as well as the oral communication skills and progress. Since English is considered the language for international communication, and the language of disseminating information on science and technology, it is the one selected in Cuban Higher Education for training competent professionals in a foreign language. In academic settings, intercultural communication should be linked to the students´ academic identity, understood as ―expert knowledge‖ within a relative specialized field. Students of Architecture at Central University ―Marta Abreu‖ of Las Villas (UCLV), in which we have focused our research, should be able to communicate in English effectively since they are involved in some international collaboration projects with Belgium, Germany and Switzerland where English is used as a lingua franca. It has been evidenced that they have difficulties in relation to the intercultural awareness necessary to carry out oral presentations about their project designs to succeed in academic and professional contexts. They have to describe structures and other graphic elements using a specific language that might affect intercultural communication due to contextual differences among cultures. When giving oral presentations about project designs, students and professionals often face problems related with intercultural communication in respect to the content of the. 5.

(12) presentation that is expressed in a graphic code and should be explained using the appropriate language for describing and communicating that content. In the case of content explanation the difficulties are focused on describing particular details related to the context of the selected construction site, contextual specifications related to the climate, location, environmental protection policies of our country, construction materials to be used that might influence the kind of project designed, selecting the appropriate graphs and be able to explain them, among others. They also face problems related with the language used for describing graphs and diagrams, terminology accuracy, voice and intonation to emphasize the main points of the presentation as well as other non-verbal elements such as the use of space and time management. On the other hand, a lack of instructional materials for teaching the technical language and the strategies for giving effective oral presentations could be evidenced in the context of the teaching and learning process of English IV (English for Specific Purposes) in Architecture studies. Those materials should include the topics related with Architecture projects design and planning, the use of the appropriate language for graph description as well as non-verbal language strategies and visual aids to develop effective oral presentations. Besides, in the teaching and learning process, teachers and students need to be systematically informed about the process of development of language skills and the importance of intercultural communication when describing project designs in oral presentations. The process that gives both agents the necessary feedback about these aspects is precisely the assessment process, which also allows them to judge the information for making the decisions about improving their practices. Thus, teachers and learners demand assessment as a mean of evaluating their projects and charting future needs and goals. In fact, over the recent years there has been an increasing focus on the importance of assessment to help students take control of their own learning process and ensure 6.

(13) learning quality in Higher Education. Language teaching programs in Cuba‘s Higher Education System are undergoing substantial changes in relation to assessment policies to guarantee learning improvement and, consequently, better professional communicative performance in different areas of knowledge. Since our languages courses are aimed at developing intercultural communication as part of communicative competence in a foreign language, therefore it should be systematically assessed as an integral part of the courses. Then, it is necessary to specify the kind of knowledge and skills that need to be assessed. To do so; university students need to be categorized in terms of intercultural requirements. According to Annie Aarup Jensen et al. (1995), such classification is divided into three categories: 1-. Students to whom intercultural competence is seen as a core competence.. 2-. Students to whom intercultural competence is part of their professional life.. 3Students to whom intercultural competence is an additional competence to the traditional professional life. According to these authors, students of Architecture would belong to the last group, to whom intercultural competence is an additional one to the traditional professional life. For them, this competence will contribute to better language proficiency. Thus, the previously described situation led to the following scientific problem: -How to assess intercultural communication in oral presentations in English of students of Architecture? The object of study lies on the assessment of the intercultural communication in oral presentations. And the field of action is focused on the assessment of intercultural communication in oral presentations in English of students of Architecture. The overall aim of the present research is: -. to provide students of Architecture with the criteria to assess intercultural communication in oral presentations of project designs in English. 7.

(14) The specific objectives of this research are: •. to determine the theoretical and methodological foundations of intercultural. communication in oral presentations of project designs in English. •. to analyze students of Architecture‘s needs in respect to intercultural. communication in oral presentations of project designs in English. •. to propose specific criteria to assess intercultural communication in oral. presentations of students of Architecture‘s project designs in English. To accomplish the previously mentioned purposes we decided to use a qualitative research perspective, which is a method of inquiry in many different academic disciplines, traditionally in the social sciences. As the study carried out in this work is related with foreign language learning assessment, it belongs to this area of knowledge. So, this methodology is considered the adequate for the accomplishment of the research purposes. To design the specific criteria to assess the intercultural component in oral presentations of students of Architecture‘s project designs in English the study was developed from September 2011 to July 2012 at Central University‖ Marta Abreu‖ of Las Villas. The population was composed of students and professors. In the case of students, it included two groups, one from 2nd year Architecture studies that was taking English IV course and another group of students from 4 th and 5th year that have participated in international collaboration projects. In the case of professors, it. was. composed of 20 specialists from different subjects that are taught in 2nd year of Architecture studies. The sample was intentionally selected following different criteria that are presented in the second chapter and it was finally composed of 8 professors and 20 students of Architecture studies. This research is supported by the dialectical-materialistic method in its chiefly qualitative approach, though some quantitative analysis of the data was also used. Therefore, the research methods used were: from the theoretical level, the HistoricalLogical, Induction-Deduction; Analysis-Synthesis and Abstraction, which contributed to 8.

(15) contrast, analyze, evaluate and then generalize the existing tendencies and the collected data for the purpose of this dissertation. From the empirical level, Participant observation, Document analysis; Individual In-depth interviews ( Interview to professors and Faculty authorities who have participated in international collaboration projects and Interviews to other professors working as subject specialists who have not participated in any international collaboration project). Group interview to students, Surveys to students who have participated in international collaboration projects abroad and to those who have not. Statistical and mathematical methods like percentages and frequency analysis were also used. All these methods were applied in order to identify the actual needs and the pertinence of this research. They will be fully explained in Chapter II. For the construction of the theoretical framework of this research, the extensive and current literature that explores various aspects of the topic of intercultural communication was taken into account.. Well-known academics have become. specialized in this area of knowledge: Hall, E. (1959-1976), is best known for his studies of non-verbal communication, Proxemics (use of personal space) and his definitions of high- and low-context cultures according to time, context and space. Byram, M. and Zarate, G. (1997) provided the most influential definition of intercultural competence. They defined five “savoirs” or components of intercultural competence, which are complementary to a language learner‘s communicative competence. These “savoirs” are also part of the classification of Intercultural Communicative Competence adopted by the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (2001). Kelly, L. (2001) reviewed the state of art on intercultural communication and language in European higher education. Guilherme, M. (2002) studied intercultural awareness in Great Britain. Corbett, J. (2003) considered an intercultural approach to English language teaching in England. In the area of assessment of intercultural communication, some authors are distinguished by their theoretical contributions. For instance, Sercu, L. (2004) developed a framework for systematic test development in foreign language education. Dervin, F. (2006, 2007) provided a critical review of current efforts of assessing intercultural 9.

(16) competence in Language Learning and Teaching. And finally, one of the most outstanding authors, Deardorff, D. (2006), who dealt with the identification and assessment of intercultural competence as a student outcome of internationalization. She also provided the SAGE handbook of intercultural competence in 2009. Also, some Cuban authors such as Cabrera, I. and Gallardo T. (2008) have developed important works related to intercultural communication. One of the most striking aspects of their contribution is the fact that they focused their studies on teacher training in intercultural education. Important contributions have been made to intercultural communication in foreign language teaching by Garbey, E. (2010), Professor and Head of English Department at the Medical School in Havana.. He studies intercultural. communication related to medical staff training, English teaching for business as well as strategies to develop intercultural communication in nursery. Romeu, V. (2012) has also developed different studies about intercultural communication, concerning the intercultural dialogue in a community. From the analysis of the antecedents mentioned above, it is clear that there are some important works on the field of study: intercultural communication, so it reveals the increasing importance of the topic nowadays. As it is evidenced, there are not previous studies on the topic of assessment of intercultural communication in oral presentations as such, and specifically of students of Architecture‘s project designs in English. Therefore, here lies the novelty of the present study. Based on the already existing theories concerning the assessment of intercultural communication of students of Architecture‘s project designs in English, this research provides the following practical contributions: . Criteria for assessing intercultural communication in oral presentations of students of Architecture‘s project designs in English.. . A Methodology to carry out oral presentations in oral presentations of students of Architecture‘s project designs in English. 10.

(17) . Elaboration of rubrics and assessment sheets as authentic assessment tools for collecting information about the assessment process of intercultural communication in oral presentations.. . A Website for assessing intercultural communication in oral presentations of students of Architecture‘s project designs in English, which was a result of a diploma paper presented by a student from Informatics studies.. The dissertation has been structured as follows: Introduction, Chapters I, II and III, Conclusions, Recommendations, Bibliography and Annexes. Chapter I deals with the theoretical background supporting the assessment of intercultural communication of oral presentations of students of Architecture‘s project designs in English. Chapter II describes the methodological approach, characteristics of the sample, research methods as well as the results derived from the needs analysis. Chapter III comprises the description of the selected criteria for assessing intercultural communication in oral presentations of students of Architecture‘s project designs in English. It also includes an account of supporting materials for giving oral presentations considering intercultural communication: a methodology with the procedure to develop effective oral presentations of project designs in English in multicultural environments and a website for intercultural oral communication in the teaching and learning process of English IV in Architecture studies.. 11.

(18) Chapter I. Theoretical framework for understanding the assessment of intercultural communication in oral presentations of students of Architecture in English This chapter aims to develop a framework for understanding the assessment of intercultural communication in oral presentations of students of Architecture in English. It is organized in three background sections. The first section is devoted to intercultural competence as a key competence for professionals training in the modern society. This section has been subdivided into three parts: the first one refers to the relevance of English as a language for intercultural communication. The second one deals with the research background in respect to the development of foreign language communicative competence and its approach from Communicative Language Teaching methodology (CLT) to the further development of Intercultural Communicative Competence in the teaching and learning process. In this part, key concepts related to intercultural communication, intercultural competence and intercultural communicative competence are also defined. In the third part of this section, the main focus is placed on intercultural communication in the professional training of Architecture students and the participation of the Construction faculty in international collaboration projects. Furthermore, cultural characteristics of the countries involved in collaboration projects with the Architecture faculty (Germany, Belgium and Switzerland) are provided. The second section contextualizes intercultural communication in oral presentations of Architecture students‘ project designs. This section has been subdivided into three parts. The first one refers to giving effective oral presentations. The second one deals with intercultural communication in oral presentations and some tips for effective intercultural oral presentations are given. The last part of this section is devoted to giving oral presentations of Architecture students‘ project designs and the stages of the planning process. The last section refers to assessing intercultural communication in oral presentations in English. This section has been subdivided into three parts. The first one has to do with 12.

(19) current and new trends in the assessment of English as a foreign language .The second one deals with the criteria for assessing oral presentations in English. Finally, some considerations about the use of rubrics and assessment sheets for assessing students‘ oral communicative performance are provided. 1.. Intercultural competence- a key competence for professionals training in the modern society. 1.1 Relevance of English as a language for intercultural communication Nowadays English is considered an international language and the main tool for mediation and intercultural communication. English as a first or second language rose from 60 million to 593 million, making it the geopolitically most widespread language of all (Kaikkonen, P, 2004). It is also a new phenomenon that English is more common in communication acts in which neither of the interlocutors is a native speaker. It is in this context that the use of English as a lingua franca is truly expanding and also diversifying. This has led to a significant change in language teaching: the objective is not longer to enable the students to attain native like competence but rather to make her/him able to communicate fluently, understand the other speaker and make her/himself understood. (Graddol 2006, cited by Perez, J. 2007) Actually, there are several ways to define and understand communication. It involves shared meanings .This means that as people experience the world and everyday activities, they create and share meanings with other people and groups. Communication is interpretive in nature and people actively attempt to understand and organize their experiences in the world. Communication is a dynamic process. It changes, moves and develops all the time. According to Lustig and Koester (1996:30) all the communicative situations are unique in nature and the process can be seen as ―a sequence of distinct but interrelated steps‖. Samovar and Porter (1991:8) also add that communication is ―a dynamic transactional behavior-affecting process in which people behave intentionally in order to induce or elicit a particular response from another person‖. As Samovar and Porter put it 13.

(20) ―communication is complete only when the intended behavior is observed by the intended receiver and that person responds to and is affected by the behavior‖. Thus, their definition is largely based on intentional communication. And so, the foreign language teaching and learning process should consider this intentional aspect in respect to intercultural communication. Everything that occurs within an academic environment, and especially in the classroom, involves communication as the medium for instruction, assessment, interpersonal relationships, group interactions, parent and community relations and counseling. In sum, communication permeates education. As English is increasingly becoming a basic skill in all the settings: educational, labor, market, international relationships, business, etc., in Higher Education is a prerequisite of earning a degree as well as of admission to Bachelor studies, Master´s or PhD programs. It has also become a key factor to achieve academic and work mobility, especially in Europe. In labor market, English steadily remains the dominant language in international business as the language of widespread sourcing activities of multicultural companies. It is also the basic language of Internet and electronic communication. Furthermore, it is a well-known fact that English is one of the working languages of the European Union and other organizations. As a result, concepts such as English as an International Language (EIL), English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) and English as a Language of Wider Communication (ELWC) have emerged, referring to its growing function as a common code for people of different nationalities. In a nutshell, the many varieties of English existing today, as well as the prevalence of English as a common language throughout the world, highlight its unique role as an international contact language. Pulverness (1996: 7 cited by Corbett, 2003) expresses, and with reason, that English is seen as a means of communication which should not be bound to culturally-specific conditions of use, but should be easily transferable to any cultural setting. So, demands for intercultural communication skills are increasing as 14.

(21) more and more businesses go global or international. People realize that there are barriers and limitations when entering a foreign territory and without the help of intercultural. communication. they. can. unknowingly. cause. confusion. and. misunderstandings. For these intercultural businesses, it is vital to fully understand the cultural differences to breach the cultural barriers encountered when stepping into foreign grounds so as to prevent damaging business relations due to intercultural communication gaps. Accordingly, intercultural competence has been also introduced in the teaching process worldwide. The importance of developing intercultural component alongside linguistic competence results from learners‘ needs of acquiring intercultural skills in cross-cultural communication where linguistic and cultural barriers may be found. Consequently, teaching from an intercultural perspective involves developing in learners critical cultural awareness of their own culturally-shaped world views and behaviors as well as the skills and attitudes to understand and successfully interact with people from other cultures, that is, to become interculturally as well as linguistically competent. English Foreign Language teachers therefore need to shift from a traditional stance to the intercultural one to develop both linguistic and intercultural competences of learners. It is obvious then, that in order to successfully function in a culturally diverse environment, our learners need to develop intercultural communicative competence (Alptekin, 2002). 1.2 From communicative competence to intercultural communicative competence In 1972, the term communicative competence was coined by Hymes. In his article On Communicative Competence he refers that the term competence should include the notions of appropriateness and acceptability as well as considerations of variables such as attitude, motivation, and a number of socio-cultural factors. For him, the term communicative competence implied the knowledge of both rules of grammar and rules of language use, appropriate to a given context. His work clearly demonstrated a shift of. 15.

(22) emphasis among linguists, away from the study of language as a system in isolation, as seen in Chomsky‘s work (1965), towards the study of language as communication. In 1980 Hymes conceptualization of communicative competence has been further developed by researchers such as, Canale and Swain (1980, 1983), Bachman (1990) and Celce-Murcia et al. (1995), who attempted to define the specific components of the communicative competence construct. The widely cited model proposed by Canale and Swain (1980), later expanded by Canale (1983), includes four competencies under the heading of communicative competence: . Grammatical competence (i.e. knowledge of the language code). . Sociolinguistic competence (i.e. knowledge of the sociocultural rules of use in a particular context). . Strategic competence (i.e. knowledge of how to use communication strategies to handle breakdowns in communication). . Discourse competence (i.e. knowledge of achieving coherence and cohesion in a spoken or written text). Although Hymes definition of communicative competence (1972) highlights the importance of understanding the socio-linguistic aspects of language, it is Van Ek‘s contribution in1986, which suggests the fact that communicative competence should be applied to foreign language teaching. In his thorough analysis, he presents six partial or superordinate abilities, which should be seen as different aspects of one and the same concept. In other words, the social competence (ability and willingness to interact with others) and the sociocultural competence were added to the list at later stages. Van Ek realized that a person cannot be regarded as communicatively competent unless she/he possesses a certain insight into the sociocultural context where every language functions as a framework of reference for its speakers.. 16.

(23) In all this scenario the instructional framework in second or foreign language programs, whose main goal is to increase learners‘ communicative competence, is Communicative Language Teaching (CLT).This theoretical term means being able to use the linguistic system effectively and appropriately in the target language and culture. However, the implementation of a communicative methodology is not an easy task since it requires an understanding of the integrated nature of the theoretical concept of communicative competence (Celce-Murcia and Olshtain, 2005). Communicative Language learning also assumes that by bridging a series of information gaps, learners will ‗naturally‘ develop their linguistic knowledge and skills, ultimately to the point where they will acquire native-speaker competence. This view of language and linguistic development has tended to underrate culture. Thus, throughout the 1970s and much of the 1980s, syllabus design and materials writing were driven by needs analysis, and culture was subordinated to performance objectives. However, since the mid to late 1980s, a number of teachers and educators have been arguing that an ‗intercultural approach‘ to second and foreign language teaching prompts to re-examine the most basic assumptions about what language does, and what a language course should seek to achieve. Current ‗communicative‘ methods generally view language as a means of bridging an ‗information gap‘. The understanding of culture now regained recognition as an important component of foreign language studies, intended to contribute to the pupils. This conception of communicative competence has been expanded in the 1990‘s when Intercultural Competence (IC) emerged as the guiding concept for the overall aim of foreign language education. The term was introduced by Michael Byram, professor at Durham University in the United Kingdom. His research on intercultural skills as well as his noteworthy contribution to the formation of the language programme of the Council of Europe is recognized worldwide. Byram‘s elaborate model of Intercultural Communicative Competence (ICC) includes five abilities in Intercultural Competence, in addition to Van Ek‘s concepts of linguistic, sociolinguistic and discourse competence, which Byram has redefined. He also pays 17.

(24) attention to the locations of learning, where the teacher and the learner have different roles and relationships. ICC can be developed in the classroom, in fieldwork and as independent learning. Byram wants to present a general framework that would be applicable in different contexts, for different levels of teaching and for different types of language learning. Every point is explicated through detailed aim descriptions, in addition to being thoroughly analyzed both from a teaching and an assessment perspective (Byram 1997) In addition, communicative language teaching, particularly in EFL, has in fact been criticized by Byram, and others, for emphasizing speech act and discourse competence, rather than cultural competence. According to this author (1991b), many of the current misunderstandings of the tasks in Foreign Language Teaching are based on an insufficient consideration of the double relationship between language and culture. Samovar, Porter, & Jain (1981: 24) positively observe that ―culture and communication are inseparable because culture not only dictates who talks to whom, about what, and how the communication proceeds, it also helps to determine how people encode messages, the meanings they have for messages, and the conditions and circumstances under which various messages may or may not be sent, noticed, or interpreted... Culture...is the foundation of communication‖. And so, the foreign language teaching and learning process should consider this intentional aspect in respect to intercultural communication. Everything that occurs within an academic environment, and especially in the classroom, involves communication. for. instruction,. assessment,. interpersonal. relationships,. group. interactions, parent and community relations and counseling. In sum, communication permeates education. Thus, it is very reasonable when Kramsch, (1993: 1) states that ―culture in language learning is not an expendable fifth skill, tacked on, so to speak, to the teaching of speaking, listening, reading, and writing. It is always in the background, right from day one, ready to unsettle the good language learners when they expect it least, making 18.

(25) evident the limitations of their hard-won communicative competence, challenging their ability to make sense of the world around them‖. Furthermore, Kramsch expresses that to learn a foreign language is not merely to learn how to communicate but also to discover how much leeway the target language allows learners to manipulate grammatical forms, sounds, and meanings, and to reflect upon, or even flout, socially accepted norms at work both in their own or the target culture. The teaching of culture should take place within the language classroom and not as a separate subject as has been traditionally taught. It is within the classroom that EFL learners acquire English language and hence culture, it is surely at this point that culture should be discussed. Many writers (Kramsch 1993, Tomalin and Stempleski 1993 and Valdes 1990) view the content of what takes place in the language classroom as the ideal material with which to address culture. On the other hand, Stern (1992: 206 cited by Corbett, 2003) notes that, despite a sustained and consistent body of work, particularly in America, drawing attention to the importance of culture in language teaching, ‗the cultural component has remained difficult to accommodate in practice‘. However, more recently, the attempts to integrate ‗culture‘ into the communicative curriculum acknowledges the obvious importance of language as a mean of communicating information, advocating an intercultural approach that emphasizes its social functions. A language course concerned with ‗culture‘, then, broadens its scope from a focus on improving the ‗four skills‘ of reading, writing, listening and speaking, in order to help learners acquire cultural skills, such as strategies for the systematic observation of behavioral patterns. Moreover, as learners come to a deeper understanding of how the target language is used to achieve the explicit and implicit cultural goals of the foreign language community, they should be prompted to reflect on the ways in which their own language and community functions. The intercultural learner ultimately serves as a mediator between different social groups that use different languages and language varieties.. 19.

(26) According to Straub (1999 cited by Corbett, 2003), what educators should always have in mind when teaching culture is the need to raise their students‘ awareness of their own culture, to provide them with some kind of metalanguage in order to talk about culture, and ‗to cultivate a degree of intellectual objectivity essential in cross-cultural analyses‘ (ibid.: 5). Thus, culture has become an increasingly important component of English language teaching in recent times. There are a number of reasons to a view the language incorporating a wider social and culture perspective, and to the increasingly multicultural use of English. 1.2.1- Defining intercultural communication, intercultural competence and intercultural communicative competence As stated before, in today‘s multicultural world, language learners need to develop not only their linguistic competence but also their intercultural communicative competence to overcome both linguistic and cultural barriers they may encounter in interaction with people from other cultures. Given the importance of intercultural communicative competence in intercultural communication, this paper has critically analyzed different definitions of both terms. Intercultural communication in its most basic form refers to an academic field of study and research. It seeks to understand how people from different countries and cultures behave, communicate and perceive the world around them. The definition of intercultural communication must also include strands of the field that contribute to it such as anthropology, cultural studies, psychology and communication. However, there are many researchers and academics within the intercultural field, which have. given. different. definitions. of. 'intercultural. communication'.. Intercultural. communication is defined as a multidisciplinary academic field of research and study that seeks to understand how people from different countries and cultures behave, communicate and perceive the world by creating a cultural synergy (Bakić-Mirić, N., 2007). 20.

(27) Knapp, K. (2001) defines this term as the interpersonal interaction between members of different groups, which differ from each other in respect of the knowledge shared by their members and in respect of their linguistic forms of symbolic behavior. Intercultural communication is a symbolic, interpretive, transactional, contextual process in which the degree of difference between people is large and important enough to create dissimilar interpretations and expectations about what is regarded as competent behaviors that should be used to create shared meanings (Arthos, J. 2000, cited by Bakić-Mirić N. 2007). Therefore, intercultural communication looks at how people from differing cultural backgrounds communicate (verbally and non-verbally) , manage , work together, approach deadlines, negotiate a contract , meet, greet , build relationships , give oral presentations , etc. In those cases we are dealing with the ability to communicate effectively within a culture as well as how we are perceived by others On the other hand, derived from intercultural communication the term intercultural competence refers to the knowledge of how to interpret and produce a spoken or written piece of discourse within a particular sociocultural context. (Usó-Juan and MartínezFlor‘s2006) Therefore, it involves knowledge of cultural factors such as the rules of behavior that exist in the target language community as well as cross-cultural awareness, including differences and similarities in cross-cultural communication‘. Whereas communicative competence involves an understanding of the norms of social interaction of one socio-cultural community, intercultural communicative competence ,which has been the key term since the 1990‘s, entails an understanding of the differences in interactional norms between different speech communities and an ability to "reconcile or mediate between different modes present" (Byram and Fleming 1998, 12). Central to the notion of intercultural communicative competence is 'cultural awareness', which involves an understanding not only of the culture of the language being studied. 21.

(28) but also of the learners' own culture. This is viewed as an intrinsic part of language learning and without it successful communication may be impossible. In accordance with most specialists on this matter, the most influential definition of intercultural communicative competence is that of Michael Byram and Geneviere Zarate (1997). Intercultural communicative competence refers to the ―ability to ensure a shared understanding by people of different social identities, and [the] ability to interact with people as complex human beings with multiple identities and their own individuality‖ (Byram, Gribkova & Starkey, 2002, p. 10. This competence emphasizes the mediation among different cultures, the ability to look at oneself from an ‗external‘ perspective, analyze and adapt one‘s own behaviors, values and beliefs (Byram & Zarate, 1997). An intercultural competent learner therefore displays a range of affective, behavioral and cognitive capacities (Byram, 2006, pp. 22–26): •. Attitudes/Affective capacities - Acknowledgement of the identities of others - Respect for otherness - Tolerance for ambiguity - Empathy. •. Behavior - Flexibility - Communicative awareness. •. Cognitive capacities - Knowledge - Knowledge discovery - Interpreting and relating - Critical cultural awareness. As pointed out by Wiseman (2003) Intercultural Communicative Competence has been said to combine three components: knowledge (= information necessary to interact appropriately and effectively) motivation (e.g. positive affect toward the other culture, empathy) and skills (behavior necessary to interact appropriately and effectively) 22.

(29) So, ―to be intercultural means to have the necessary skill to be positive in difficult and stressful situations. It means to have the skill to use appropriate nonverbal communication cues, the strength to survive culture shock when arriving in a foreign country and the ability to be aware of and maintain your own cultural identity without jeopardizing intercultural relations‖. (Garbey, E. 2010: 23) EFL teachers, therefore need to shift from a traditional stance to an intercultural one to develop both linguistic and intercultural competences of learners. 1.3 Intercultural communication in the professional training of Architecture students. Participation of the Construction Faculty in international collaboration projects As part of the internationalization of Higher Education, the Construction faculty at the UCLV has been involved in international collaboration projects with different countries, such as Germany, Belgium and Switzerland, where English is spoken as a lingua franca for international communication. Furthermore, Professors from Architecture and Civil Engineering Department have participated in projects with the Urban and Landscape Architecture Faculty of Kassel University in Germany, Catholic University of Leuven in Belgium and Lausanne University in Switzerland for many years. Only students participate in the project of Kassel University in Germany that includes mobility and students‘ academic interchange. Therefore, as part of their professional training and to successfully perform in this context, Architecture students should acquire knowledge of the culture, institutions, history and ways of life of different communities and the ability to recognize their impact on behavioral norms. They should have also learned to understand the relationship between culture, contexts of communication and language use. In fact they should develop insight into the roles and conventions governing behavior within specific intercultural environments as well as critical awareness of their own and others‘ beliefs and values. In addition, they should assimilate sensitivity towards cultural stereotypes and related obstacles to successful intercultural communication.. 23.

(30) Once Architecture students have acquired such knowledge and understanding they will be able to communicate effectively in the language of their interlocutor; apply the knowledge of culture and cultural values to the management of intercultural contexts; adapt their behavior according to the demands of different intercultural situations; identify and develop critical analysis of the cultural components of authentic media of communication as well as reflect on the cultural factors influencing their own behavior and that of others. To sum up, intercultural communication is very important for Architecture students to perform properly in multicultural environments. 1.3.1 Cultural characteristics of the countries involved in collaboration projects with the Architecture faculty: Germany, Belgium and Switzerland Germans are strongly individualistic and polite people, due to the strong culture they hold, many people is able to speak English and communicate to foreigners effectively. Normally when people meet in Germany, there will be a lot of body contacts involved like patting elbows or back, shaking hands and kissing cheek or hugging. However, the level of body contacts will be based on the closeness of each other. In general, when greeting, they will shake hand with each other. Regardless of how many years they have known each other, Germans are most likely to call their colleagues by their last names and always introduce themselves with title and last name only, title is extremely crucial for the Germans. When addressing someone or writing a letter, they use the correct title. (Diplomat, 2012) Germans like to make eye contact when having a conversation, they belief that by talking face to face brings out a sense of honesty and interest. (Turner, 2011) They are very direct and straightforward when it comes to communication, consequently, they might give a hurtful comment unintentionally. Germans are widely known to be seen as unfriendly at first because their friendly attitude are reserved for close friends and relatives only. Business is viewed as being very serious, and Germans do not appreciate humor in a business context.. 24.

(31) Non-verbal communication is quite different in Germany, when it comes to counting things, Germans are likely to use their thumb as number one and this can sometimes cause confusion to visitors. Using index finger to point at things or people is quite normal in Germany, but using the ―okay‖ sign is highly inappropriate thumb and index finger joined together will result in a rude sign. Punctuality is a necessity in Germany. Arrive on time for every appointment, whether for business or social reasons. Being late, even if it is only by a few minutes, is very insulting to a German executive. Germans keep a larger personal space around them, approximately 6 inches more space than North Americans do. However, it is not unusual that when in line at a store cash register, Germans will crowd up very close to the person in front of them. On the other hand, the Swiss are known for their commendable work ethics and in fact, their attitude is almost superior in nature. Swiss communication style depends greatly on personality, but they are generally polite and direct in communication. The Swiss tend to be private people and asking personal questions is not common. It is not polite to be too close during conversation at least an arm´s length should be maintained. If you accidentally brush someone on the train or touch on the bus, it is generally considered polite to excuse yourself. Families and friends often touch when speaking but it is rare for acquaintances to do so. It is certainly not accepted in business settings. Eye contact is a sign of respect and should be maintained, regardless of whom they are speaking with. Direct eye contact is not just acceptable, it‘s required. Not having eye contact with a person, no matter if it‘s a boss, a child, a grocery store clerk etc., is considered rude. Titles are very important to Swiss. They address people by their full, correct title, no matter how extraordinarily long that title may seem to foreigners. This is also true when addressing a letter. In general, Swiss people are orderly, careful and conscientious, therefore, being late is considered rude. If invited to a friend‘s for dinner or a party, being a few minutes late is acceptable, but certainly no more than 15-30 minutes. Punctuality is highly valued throughout the country. Being on time for business meetings, service appointments, 25.

(32) etc. is expected, but not early. Being even a few minutes late for a meeting is especially rude and inconsiderate. Business is serious and handled as such. For business meeting Swiss people dress conservatively, place little value on humor and are straightforward, concise and tend to avoid gesture wildly or act superior in any way. In Belgium, although the Official Languages are French, Dutch and German people are excellent linguists and many are sufficiently fluent to conduct meetings in English. Greetings entail a degree of formality. A brief handshake is the common greeting among people who do not know each other. Belgians take pride in their appearance and always arrive on time since punctuality demonstrates respect for them. They are polite, well-mannered as well as careful and prudent, so takes time before they trust others. Belgians prefer subtlety to directness, believing that subtlety is a reflection of intelligence. Although they are more direct in their communication than many cultures, if a response is too direct it may be seen as simplistic. They prefer communication to be logical and based on reason. Belgians often engage in long, critical discussions before reaching a decision so that they can be certain that they have considered all the alternatives. They believe it is rude to be confrontational. Everyone is expected to arrive on time. So, arriving late may brand you as unreliable. Appearances are important to Belgians. They take pride in their personal appearance, dress well and are concerned with the impression they make on others. People do not remove jackets during meetings since they are considered formal. Men should wear dark colored, conservative business suits with white shirts and silk ties. Women should wear business suits or conservative dresses. Men should only wear laced shoes, never loafers or other slip-ons, as they are too casual. Polished shoes are an integral part of a professional image. All this information was taken from one of the most widespread websites specializing in cross-cultural communication: Kwintessential. This knowledge is essential for raising 26.

(33) students‘ intercultural awareness, necessary to carry out effective oral presentations in these countries. 2. Intercultural communication in oral presentations of Architecture students’ project designs. 2.1 Giving effective oral presentations Speaking in public is an important part of university life. Oral presentations are a common academic activity of many courses. Most of the literature dealing with the methodology for oral presentation concentrates on the delivery style (Chirnside, 1986; Richards, 1989; Koh, 1988). Oral presentations are brief discussions of a focused topic delivered to a group of listeners in order to communicate knowledge or to stimulate discussion. They are similar to short papers with an introduction, main body and conclusion. The ability to give brief presentations is a learned skill and one that is called on frequently in the workplace. Carter, (2001) Other authors, such as Cook, J. (2003), state that an oral presentation is a form of assessment that teachers frequently use in the classroom. The author of this research work agrees on that, although the purpose is not always assessment but just the exposition of some topic or a product to an audience, sometimes in a work setting. So, oral presentations are usually for a class, but the purpose goes beyond that. Teachers grade oral presentations based on the quality of the information presented as well as the method of presenting it. Oral assessments come in a variety of styles, from multimedia projects to group work to speeches. Making a good oral presentation is an art that involves attention to the needs of your audience, careful planning, and attention to delivery. Oral presentations are usually short and on a pre-agreed topic. They are also similar to giving a speech, but the idea that it is a presentation invokes images of visual aids and teaching tools rather than just a single person talking behind a podium, as with a speech. Most of them require the presenter to use a combination of spoken words and visual aids in order to present an idea or an explanation to a group of people. 27.

(34) Oral presentations are effective teaching tools in this way because they add variety to the classroom and allow students the opportunity to teach one another instead of always learning from the teacher. They sometimes explain a skill or a process; in this case, a person with expertise on a subject might explain that subject to the group. The group members can follow along and learn a new skill as they watch the presentation. Presentations incorporate a variety of important skills: the presenter learns to hone public speaking skills, including using a clear voice and timing a speech, he/she might also learn multimedia skills as he/she prepares visual and auditory aids for his/her presentation and research skills as he/she studies the topic. He/she also might learn teaching skills as he/she prepares the material to teach it to the classmates. (Cook, 2003) When giving an oral presentation, it is important to clearly explain a topic and pay attention to the audience. The presenter should consider the audience knowledge about the topic in advance and teach them the information, they do not know. It is important to include visual or auditory aids in the presentation in order to add variety for people who need them to process information. Visual learners, for instance, have a hard time learning a topic when they only hear someone talking about it. Incorporating technology into the presentation makes it more entertaining for the audience as well, which increases the likelihood that the presenter will hold their attention through the duration of the presentation. Making an effective oral presentation is a skill that takes practice and a certain theatrical flair to pull off effectively. A presentation is a reflection of the presenter and his/her work. They want to make the best possible impression in the short amount of time given. The main purpose of an oral presentation is to present subject content in an organized, concise and effective manner. When delivering an oral presentation, certain challenges require ingenious techniques to engage into an impromptu interaction with the audience. 28.

(35) members. Planning, writing and completing are three key elements in any oral presentation process. •. Presentation Planning Planning a presentation requires careful analysis and research. The typical reasons for giving a presentation are to inform, persuade, motivate and entertain. It is necessary to capture audience's attention and maintain their interest thorough the entire oral presentation by defining the purpose clearly.. •. Writing a Presentation In order to create an effective oral presentation, the presenter must write for the audience. The content can not be too simple or too complex. Presenters should write down examples and good arguments to help the audience remember key points. A good presentation also incorporates a clear structure that should include an introduction, a main body and a conclusion that summarizes everything said in a clear and concise manner. When organizing an oral presentation, here are five fundamentals to put into action: 1) Focus on the audience as the presenter defines the main concept. 2) Tailor the scope. Present the material in the time allotted. 3) Select the approach. Use simplicity in delivering presentations. 4) Prepare an outline. The outline is a prepared script, helping to keep the presentation audience-centered and within the allotted time. 5) Determine the most effective style of the presentation. •. Completing a Presentation. When completing an oral presentation, the message should be evaluated, and remarks for conciseness and effectiveness should be edited. Using visual aids, which can improve the impact of your oral presentation, should be considered. The visual aids should illustrate points that are hard to explain and give the audience the ability to understand and remember important information. They can also help the speaker. 29.

(36) remember details about the material he/she is presenting. Lastly, the art of delivery is crucial; preparation through practice is needed. 2.2. Intercultural communication in oral presentations. Tips for effective intercultural oral presentations When giving oral presentations to an audience from a different culture, there are some intercultural factors that might hinder the success of a presentation. These factors are considered when delivering presentations across cultural lines: Language: The language used in an intercultural presentation is important. Although the majority of the language that is used will be understood by an English speaking foreign audience, a speaker must be careful when it comes to slang, idioms or phrases. For example: When an American talks of a 'billion' he means a thousand million, whereas in the UK this would mean a million. Therefore, to keep language simple is considered crucial. Body Language: Paying attention to body language in an intercultural presentation is significant. Some cultures are quite animated and will appreciate hand gestures and the expression of emotion through the body. Others expect speakers to remain calm and would find such behavior over the top and pay attention to the use of gestures. For example: The thumbs up may mean 'good' in the USA but it means something very different in Iran. Eye contact can also be a major intercultural difference. Some cultures consider strong eye contact a sign of sincerity, others find it overbearing and an invasion of privacy. Time: Being aware of different approaches to time across cultures is also relevant. Some cultures prefer a structured, timetabled approach to conducting business affairs, others are more casual. For example: if someone arrives late to a meeting in a punctual 30.

(37) culture, should expect some negative feedback. Always show the appropriate stiffness or flexibility depending on the culture. In our culture we should consider that fact by adjusting to the time allotted to the oral presentation and arriving on time. Emotions: Some intercultural presentations may be in front of a small number of people and deal with sensitive issues in a pressured environment. In such intercultural situations one should always keep their emotions in check. In some cultures a certain amount of cross examination or scrutiny may occur. If this happens bearing in mind the positive intentions behind such actions is considered important, i.e. the questions are only being posed to establish facts, not to undermine the presenter. So, presenters should never lose patience, show frustration or display anger. To do so will lead to a loss of credibility. Style of Presentation: Different cultures learn and take in information in varying ways. One should always try and tailor their presentation style to meet the needs of the target culture. Some cultures, such as Europeans, prefer information to be presented in detail and in a way that sets down foundations that act as the support to a final argument or point. In such a presentation the speaker should gradually lead the audience, using a logical succession of points, to a conclusion. On the other hand, some cultures, like the US, prefer a much faster paced presentation that is bottom-line orientated, meaning the presenter speaks from a point rather towards a point. Use of Technology: Power Point is not the default method of giving a presentation across the world. Some countries many not even have the technical capabilities to accommodate this so one would need to adapt to the resources at hand, whether it be an Over Head Projector or blackboard. Some cultures do not even like a visual element to presentations and find much more worth in words and personality. 31.

(38) Content: In a cross cultural presentation, ensure to tailor the content of a presentation to the audience. Different cultures expect different things from a business presentation. Long term orientated cultures may be excited about future projections and figures, but others would rather learn more about the presenter's credentials, accomplishments and experience. A presenter needs to ask whether the target culture will appreciate factual, statistical information presented visually, or a more personal oratory approach. Audience Participation: Audiences react in different ways across cultures. Some are very engaging and are willing to participate in exercises and Q&A sessions, others are the opposite. Audiences also show respect in many ways. For example: a Japanese audience may close their eyes while listening; a US one may clap when a good point is made and a Saudi one may do nothing at all. 2.3 Giving oral presentations of students of Architecture project designs Stages of the planning process of project designs When Architecture students deliver oral presentations of projects design they should sketch their projects taking into account different stages in planning phase. They are: . Context analysis that includes the natural, built and social context.. . Concept analysis that includes designing ideas and criteria such as historical,. functional, socio-cultural, economic, constructive –technical and environmental analysis. . Designing. . Construction. Each stage uses a specific language for describing the procedures, instructions to carry out the project design. The most important for the purposes of this research is the designing stage and the oral description of the project as a result although it includes the process of the analysis involved in the previous stages. 32.

(39) 3- Assessing intercultural communication in oral presentations in English 3.1 Current trends in the assessment of English as a foreign language Higher education institutions use assessment more effectively to promote student learning since it provides a framework for sharing educational objectives with students and for charting their progress. It can also generate feedback information that can be used by students to enhance learning and achievement. As Popham (2006) points out, this feedback information can also help teachers re-align their teaching in response to learners‘ needs. When assessment serves these purposes it is called ‗formative assessment‘. It is considered that formative assessment should be an integral part of teaching and learning and that ‗feedback‘ and ‗feed-forward‘ should be systematically embedded in curriculum practices. However, many teachers do not include it as a systematic practice and teaching and learning process usually fails because they do not consider the necessary feedback on their practices and for improving students ‗learning. Fundamental to education is the need to assess student learning and the effectiveness of teaching methods and the programs offered. Assessment allows faculty to determine what, and how well, students are learning. Assessment provides teachers, parents and administrators with information on student achievement, informs the instructional process, motivates students and influences their behavior. It constitutes a plan for instruction that monitors progress, provides feedback to students and gathers evidence of learning. (Stiggins, 2000) Classroom assessments help instructors gain information about what students have mastered and can be used to improve teaching. Student knowledge should be regularly assessed throughout a course through an ongoing approach (Angelo & Cross, 1993). When instructors regularly assess student learning, the results can be used to adjust the teaching. However, as Duke (2004) noted, although assessments are typically implemented following instruction, planning for assessment should begin prior to 33.

(40) instruction. This module provides information about getting feedback from students to adjust instruction and suggests assessment strategies. Therefore, there have been many scientific studies carried out in this area that highlight the role of assessment .Well-known academics have become specialized on the subject. For instance, Angelo and Cross (1993) main contributions are related with formative assessment and classroom assessment techniques. Brown (1994 and later) and Gardnerhave developed important works related to assessment in Higher Education. The last author also provided an overview of assessment. Gipps (1999) dealt with sociocultural aspects of assessment. McMillan (2000) focused their studies on alternative assessment. Sercu (2004) has developed different studies about the assessment of intercultural competence. Thus, there are many researchers within this field, which naturally all have different definitions of assessment. For example Angelo, the Director of The American Association of Higher Education Forum, assumes that ―…assessment is an ongoing process aimed at understanding and improving student learning. It involves: Making expectations explicit and public; setting appropriate criteria and high expectations for learning quality; systematically gathering, analyzing, and interpreting evidence to determine how well performance matches those expectations and standards; And using the resulting information to document, explain, and improve performance‖. (Angelo, 1995) While Oakland Community College provides a definition of assessment from a learning perspective:. ―Assessment is an on-going process aimed at understanding. and improving student learning. It involves making our expectations clear to students and setting appropriate outcomes for learning. It helps determine how well student performance matches those outcomes. It uses the resulting information to improve student learning‖. (Oakland Community College, 2008) According to Julie Kerr, (2010) assessment is the ongoing process of gathering, analyzing and reflecting on evidence to make informed and consistent judgments to improve future student learning. 34.

(41) Then, analyzing the previous definitions and in accordance with the pedagogical practice of the author, it has been confirmed that assessment is a process that consists of three different stages. Jorba y Sanmartí (1996, cited by Perez, J. 2007): . Gathering of information. . Analyzing, and interpreting evidence. . Making informed and consistent judgments to improve future student learning.. In other words, assessment is a process by means of which relevant information about the learning process of students is observed, gathered and analyzed to make judgments and take decisions to improve student learning. In a nutshell, assessment is a key component to improve educational processes that has been gaining interest among teachers nowadays. Thus, getting deeply in this field of study is a necessity in the educational context. 3.1.2 New trends influencing university language assessment practices The new trends in assessment practices are focused on alternative assessment. This is the term used in response to traditional assessment since students are required to generate knowledge rather than choose a response‘‘ (Herman, Aschabacher, and Winters, 1992, p. 2). Alternative assessment is a blanket term that covers a number of alternatives to standardized tests. While the traditional paper and pencil tests may be effective to assess some of the skills (such as listening), they are not sufficient to assess the productive skills of speaking and writing. The nature of proficiency-oriented language learning calls for a variety of assessment options reflecting the numerous instructional strategies used in the classroom. Authentic assessment, performancebased assessment, and portfolio fall under this category. The focus of this research is on the authentic and performance based assessment as oral presentations are considered authentic tasks used in performance-based assessment. Assessment is authentic when we directly examine student performance on worthy intellectual tasks. (Wiggings, G. 1990). It integrates the assessment of traditional academic content with the knowledge and skills important to lifelong learning 35.