ver the last few years, adolescents have increased their use of information and communication technology. Every day minors spend more and more time using technologies such as the Internet, computers, tablets or smartphones. In fact, the percentage of Spanish adolescents that use the Internet is close to 100 per cent. Almost all the young people in Spain use the Internet and computers, and have a mobile phone (INE, 2017).
In this context, interactive communication has gained visibility and relevance.
According to Scolari (2008), interactive communication is a type of communication mediated by digital technologies. Most adolescents use some form of interactive communication daily. In fact, it has become a social norm among adolescents (Favotto, Michaelson, & Davison, 2017). Accordingly, more than nine in ten Spaniards aged 12-17 use instant messaging services and have a social media profile (Golpe Ferreiro, Gómez Salgado, Kim Harris, Braña, & Rial, 2017).
Consequently, in the last decades there has been a significant increase in research focusing on minors and information and communication technology. Thus, many studies analyse the frequency, location of access or purposes of the use of this technology in children and adolescents (e.g., Beentjes, Koolstra, Mareille, & van der Voort, 2001; Garitaonandia, Fernández, & Oleaga, 2005; Ólafsson, Livingstone, &
Haddon, 2013). However, parents and educators, and therefore researchers, are particularly concerned about the effects, especially negative, that this use may have in minors. For this reason, research is also being carried out on online risks. These studies mainly analyse the type of risks that coexist (e.g., Catalina García, López de Ayala López, & García Jiménez, 2014; Lin, 2009), their frequency of occurrence (e.g., Livingstone, Haddon, & Görzig, 2011), and their consequences (e.g., Chalfen, 2009;
Garaigordobil, 2011; Hinduja & Patchin, 2010). Some of this research raises awareness among parents, educators and policymakers of the importance of taking urgent measures, such as parental mediation and educational interventions, to address these risks.
O
Therefore, there is growing concern about the use of technology by adolescents because of the risks they could face. We cannot ignore the opportunities of this use for young people and their interests, such as the positive effect of interactive communication in some circumstances (Valkenburg & Peter, 2009). However, these technologies also have risks that we need to identify and be careful of (Ktoridou, Eteokleous, & Zahariadou, 2012). These risks are of concern in the case of minors because of their extensive use of digital technology and because they form a part of the population that requires special protection. Moreover, although they are “very sophisticated users of technology and often lead the way in adapting new technologies to everyday use, their technological savvy, combined with the ability to be online without much adult supervision, can lead to behaviours that are high risk” (Agatston, Kowalski, & Limber, 2007, p. 59).
In this regard, when scholars talk about online risks they usually refer to contact with strangers, engagement in sexting, exposure to pornography, exposure to violence and cyberbullying (Agatston et al., 2007; Catalina García et al., 2014; Dowdell, Burgess, & Cavanaugh, 2009; Livingstone & Helsper, 2010; Livingstone & Smith, 2014;
Staksrud, Ólafsson, & Livingstone, 2013; Vandoninck, d’Haenens, & Roe, 2013). Against this background, minors should be “encouraged to assume responsibility for their own safety as much as possible with a focus on empowerment, emphasizing responsible behaviour and digital citizenship” (Livingstone, Haddon, Görzig, & Ólafsson, 2011a, p.
10). Along these lines, there is a line of research that suggests that we must focus on the training of minors, specifically on their digital skills training, as a prevention tool (Chisholm, 2006; Eshet-Alkalai, 2004; S.-J. Lee & Chae, 2012; O’Neill, Livingstone, &
McLaughlin, 2011; Rodríguez-de-Dios & Igartua, 2014; Sonck, Livingstone, Kuiper, &
de Haan, 2011). Thus, through this training, young people could become digitally literate and more competent and confident in the digital environment.
Despite the fact that new generations are digital natives and are at the forefront of new technologies, they have difficulty in managing information, assessing the credibility of information, building their digital identity, and managing their privacy online (González, 2012). Therefore, we presuppose that, despite being digital natives, they are not digital literates, as the frequent use of digital devices does not imply digital literacy. Consequently, it is the same with media literacy; the mass consumption and indiscriminate use of media is not associated with knowledge of the codes of visual language. That is why users are still defenceless against media messages (Moreno, 2008). Furthermore, when it comes to defending digital literacy as a prevention tool against the risks of interactive communication, we take into consideration the good results obtained by media literacy. In this way, media literacy interventions have proved to be effective in addressing the harmful effects of mass media (Jeong, Cho, & Hwang, 2012).
In this regard, it is important to stress that we cannot deprive adolescents of interactive communication, and information and communication technology. In addition, it would be an impossible task. However, as we have mentioned, the solution is to give them the tools to be able to use these technologies safely. These tools appear with the development of digital skills. That is, through a process of digital literacy, children could manage these risks and maximise the opportunities offered by interactive communication. Consequently, the overall goal of this doctoral thesis is to improve digital skills in adolescents with the aim that they can afford, without danger, the risks of interactive communication and can maximise the opportunities that this communication gives to them. From this overall goal, we set the following specific objectives:
• Create a methodological tool, which will be submitted to statistical tests for reliability and validity to assess the level of digital skills of a population.
• Analyse which personal and parental factors influence the level of digital skills, online risk behaviours and online opportunities.
• Determine whether there is a relationship between digital skills and online risk behaviours.
• Develop an intervention, using a mobile application, based on entertainment- education strategy and theories of narrative persuasion, to enable digital literacy.
Therefore, this study aims to increase the digital skills of adolescents through two processes: a first process of performing a diagnosis of digital skills, and a second process of intervention for digital literacy. With this purpose, three studies are conducted. First, and with the aim of developing and validating a scale to assess the level of digital literacy in teenagers, a survey is conducted. Scales are used to assess complex constructs that cannot be defined easily with one quiz question in a questionnaire (Igartua, 2006), and digital literacy is such a complex construct.
Therefore, and considering previous literature, the scale is developed and submitted to statistical tests of reliability and validity (exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses, and correlation with other variables).
The second study is related to this digital literacy diagnosis and is also conducted by the survey technique. Because the goal of this thesis is to provide adolescents with digital skills, it is necessary to know their level of skills beforehand.
Furthermore, we aim to analyse which parental factors influence the level of digital literacy, online risk behaviours and online opportunities, and to determine whether there is a relationship between digital literacy and online risk behaviours. Accordingly, a structural equation model is constructed to answer these questions.
The third study consists of a digital literacy and coping strategies intervention based on mobile learning. Instead of using a traditional educational intervention, we develop a mobile application with the educational content. For developing this app, we consider mobile learning theories, the strategy of entertainment-education and
narrative persuasion theory. Finally, with the aim of checking its effectiveness, the app is evaluated by a quasi-experimental design with two groups.
This doctoral thesis is structured in three main parts, followed by two sections (references and appendixes). The first part (present part) gives a short introduction to the doctoral thesis. The second part, formed by five chapters (from chapter 1 to chapter 5), provides the theoretical background of the research. The third part includes the empirical research and is composed by three chapters, one for each study (from chapter 6 to chapter 8). Finally, chapter 9 provides discussion and general conclusions of the thesis. Bellow, there is a chapter overview.
Chapter 1 presents the starting point of the study and, consequently, some relevant terms for the study, such as interactive communication, are defined. We also present some statistical data on the integration of information and communication technology in society and its effects. After this, we focus on adolescents and review how and how often they use technology. Finally, we examine the impact that this use has on adolescents' lives.
Since digital technology is present in all areas of our lives (education, communication, entertainment, etc.), this makes digital skills essential to function effectively in this environment. Consequently, chapter 2 presents a review of digital literacy and digital skills. We review the concept of digital literacy and other literacies with which digital literacy shares conceptual ground. Moreover, we analyse the digital skills that are included in the broader concept of digital literacy and the digital literacy measures that have been developed.
Chapter 3 provides a review of adolescents' online risks and online opportunities, two closely related topics in their use of digital media. First, we analyse the different types of online risk behaviours (contact with strangers, sexting, exposure to pornography, exposure to violence and cyberbullying), their frequencies and their consequences for adolescents. Secondly, we refer to online opportunities, which
adolescents can take advantage of via digital media. Finally, we discuss the role of digital literacy and digital skills as a prevention tool against online risks and as a facilitator of online opportunities.
Given these concerns about online risks and online opportunities, in chapter 4 we examine the different strategies that have been promoted by the different stakeholders involved (parents, educators, policymakers and researchers) with the aim of safeguarding adolescents’ digitally and empowering them: technological mediation, parental mediation and educational interventions. We review their characteristics and the research conducted to evaluate their effectiveness. This helps us obtain more insight into the strategies that have been used, and into why educational strategies are preferred and evaluated as more effective and helpful. In this chapter we also briefly review the legislation adopted by policymakers with digital safety in mind.
Since educational initiatives have proved to be an effective tool for promoting adolescents’ digital safety, in chapter 5 we look at theoretical approaches and strategies that have been found to be successful for knowledge dissemination: mobile learning, entertainment-education and narrative persuasion. We examine the theoretical bases that support the use of mobile learning (constructivism and gamification) and review research on the effectiveness of mobile learning initiatives developed through mobile applications. We also discuss the effectiveness of the entertainment-education strategy, the possibilities and effects of narratives and their explanatory mechanisms (narrative transportation and identification with characters). To conclude the chapter and the theoretical framework, we analyse the possibility of combining the use of narrative persuasion and mobile learning.
Chapter 6 presents the first study of the thesis. Using a quantitative methodology, we develop and validate a scale to assess the level of digital literacy in adolescents. Exploratory factor analysis and confirmatory factor analysis reveal the
existence of six digital skills (technological skill, personal security skill, critical skill, device security skill, informational skill and communication skill) measured through 28 items. Results and implications are discussed.
In chapter 7 we present the second study. Using data from a cross-sectional survey among 1,446 Spanish adolescents in secondary education, we aim to achieve two goals. First, we aim to examine how adolescents’ digital skills are related to their online opportunities and online risk behaviours. Second, we aim to study whether adolescents’ digital skills mediate the relationship between parental mediation and adolescents’ online risks and opportunities. This chapter increases our knowledge on adolescents’ digital literacy and the role of parental mediation (active and restrictive).
Results and implications are discussed.
Chapter 8 is based on the third, and last, study of the thesis. Taking the results of the previous study as a starting point, we conduct a quasi-experiment for evaluating the impact of a mobile application on adolescents. This mobile application is developed, considering the theories of constructivism, gamification, mobile learning and narrative persuasion, with the aim of teaching digital skills and coping strategies for facing online risks to young people. Results and implications are discussed.
Finally, in chapter 9 we present an overview of the study and the general conclusions derived from it. Additionally, we examine the theoretical implications of the present thesis, identify its main limitations and suggest future research in this field. As a complement, seven appendices that provide supplementary information about the thesis have been incorporated.