Límíts to knowledge, limítation on research and productíon

" W e c a n n o t agree w i t h t h o s e w h o assert t h a t scientific i n q u i r y a n d r e s e a r c h s h o u l d a c k n o w l e d g e n o l i m i t s . A l l t h a t c a n b e k n o w n n e e d n o t be k n o w n ¡f in advance i t clearly appears t h a t t h e p r o c e s s o f gaining such k n o w l e d g e v i o l a t e s t h e sanctity o f h u - man life. R e m e m b e r i n g its o w n h i s t o r y , t h e c h u r c h s h o u l d n o t o p p o s e s c i e n t i f i c a d v a n c e , b u t i t m u s t s p e a k o u t in j u d g m e n t w h e n t h e q u e s t f o r n e w k n o w l e d g e s u p e r s e d e s all ethical c o n - cerns. W e d o n o t a l l o w t h i s stance t o be called, n o t t o b e c o m e , o n e o f a n t i - i n t e l l e c t u a l o r antiscientific bias. N e i t h e r d o w e i m p l y t h a t g e n e t i c scientists a r e m o r a l l y i r r e s p o n s i b l e , o r t h a t i n s t i t u - t i o n a l r e v i e w b o a r d s c a n n o t m a k e p r o p e r d e c i s i ó n o n r e s e a r c h p r o t o c o l s . "

In this paragraph t h e f i r s t p r i n c i p i e i n v o l v e d is t h e a f f i r m a t i o n o f t h e p o s i t i v e valué o f scientific i n q u i r y and r e s e a r c h . It is a s s e r t e d , n o t a r g u e d . T h e s e c o n d is t h e s a n c t i t y o f h u m a n life. T h e l a t t e r is t h e l i m i t i n g p r i n c i p i e f o r t h e f o r m e r . F o r this P r o t e s t a n t policy, t h e s a n c t i t y o f h u m a n life p r o v i d e s j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r d e t e r m i n i n g w h e n scientific i n q u i r y and r e s e a r c h m u s t cease and desist. T h a t l i m i t a t i o n cashes o u t in s u b o r d i n a t e p r o p o s i t i o n s t h a t w o u l d , f o r e x a m p l e , r e j e c t i n q u i r y w i c h r e q u i r e s t h e use o f h u m a n s as u n - w i l l i n g guinea pigs f o r e x p e r i m e n t a r o n . In brief, t h e c o n t r o l l i n g ethic o f t h i s l i m i t i n g p o s i t i o n is o n e called d e o n t o l o g i c a l . T h a t r e - fers t o t h e e l e v a t i o n o f c e r t a i n o b l i g a t i o n s o r rules as r e q u i r i n g c o n s e n t and o b e d i e n c e in and o f t h e m s e l v e s . T h e r e is n o r e f e r - ence t o j u s t i f i c a t i o n by a g o a l , t h a t is, o f a t e l e o l o g i c a l p r e f e r - ence, w h i c h m e a s u r e s t h e v a l i d i t y o f a c t i o n s t o be t a k e n solely by t h e i r c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e e n d t o be o b t a i n e d , w h e t h e r t h a t e n d be k n o w l e d g e f o r its o w n sake o r k n o w l e d g e in o r d e r t o advance t h e g r e a t e s t g o o d f o r t h e g r e a t e s t n u m b e r . T h e sanctity o f h u - man life is, t h e r e f o r e , a p r i n c i p i e t h a t rejects calculations o f m e r i t / d e m e r i t in t e r m s o f acts t o be d o n e in t h e light o f goals t o be realized. N o e n d can justify in advance any means. T h e s a n c t i t y o f h u m a n life stands as t h e l i m i t i n g p r i n c i p i e o f scientific i n q u i r y . It leads t o an e t h i c o f r e s t r a i n t a n d c a u t i o n w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o a p - p r o v i n g i n q u i r y .

G i v e n , h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e m a p p i n g o f t h e H u m a n G e n o m e d o e s n o t v i ó l a t e t h e s a n c t i t y o f t h e self, e.g., its a u t o n o m y , t h e r e is n o reason in p r i n c i p i e t o r e f r a i n f o r m u n d e r t a k i n g , p a r t i c i p a t i n g in, and c o m p l e t i n g t h e v e n t u r e .

W h a t n e i t h e r o f t h e P r o t e s t a n t s t a t e m e n t s t a c k l e is t h e issue o f t h e legitimacy o f t h e p r o j e c t in t e r m s o f its w o r t h c o m p a r e d t o

I 5 2 o t h e r p r o j e c t s . T h a t d e t e r m i n a t i o n is a j u s t i c e issue, o n e o f e s t i - m a t i n g its v a l u é in t e r m s o f p o t e n t i a l c o n s e q u e n c e s o f o n e i n - q u i r y o v e r against a n o t h e r , and t h e c o n s e q u e n t establishing o f p h o r i t i e s f o r r e s e a r c h .

T o r e t u r n t o t h e q u e s t i o n o f goals t o be s o u g h t and o f j u s t i c e t o be d o n e , t w o p r o m i n e n t P r o t e s t a n t ethical d i r e c t i v e s can be seen a t w o r k in t h e W C C p a p e r . T h e f i r s t t r e a t s goals, t h e s e c o n d j u s t i c e .

U n d e r goals t h e r e is m o r e a w a r n i n g t h a n a d i r e c t i v e . It is t h a t t h e p r o j e c t i o n o f goals t o be s e r v e d by I n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e H u m a n G e n o m e is i n e v i t a b l y s u b j e t t o bias. "The history o f genetic movements, f r o m Plato to the present doy, sfiows m a n y examples o f individuáis a n d groups, including scientific leaders a n d often so-called experts, who institutionalized their prejudice o f race, sex, a n d class through programs that causad tragic h a r m " ( W C C , p. 14) Such a r e c o g n i t i o n elevates c a u t i o n and r e s t r a i n t o v e r against any p a r t i c - ular p o s i t i n g o f goals. K n o w l e d g e is p o w e r . T h a t is o n e f a m i l i a r saying. B u t a n o t h e r is also p e r t i n e n t . "Power tends to corrupt a n d absolute power tends to corrupt obso/ute/y". T h e r e is a h e a l t h y s k e p - t i c i s m t o c o m e i n t o play w h e n any o n e p e r s o n o r g r o u p p r o - poses a goal t o be s o u g h t t h r o u g h t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f a b o d y o f k n o w l e d g e . T h e t e m p t a t i o n t o a b s o l u t i z e t h e r e l a t i v e is t e s t i f i e d t o by t h e h i s t o r y o f eugenic policies.

O n a m o r e p o s i t i v e n o t e t h e P r o t e s t a n t c o n c e r n f o r j u s t i c e as a p r i m a r y valué leads t h e a u t h o r s o f t h e W C C p a p e r t o speak a s t r o n g w o r d o n behalf o f t h o s e w h o a r e r e l a t i v e l y p o w e r l e s s . It d o e s so by a d v o c a t i n g t h a t t h e t h e r a p e u t i c benefits o f t h e H u m a n G e n o m e findings n o t be r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e w e a l t h y n a t i o n s w h o s e p o w e r f u l m o n e y leads t o p o w e r f u l k n o w l e d g e f o r t h e i r use. Ñ o r t o t h o s e individuáis o n l y able t o a f f o r d . T h e c r i t e r i a f o r d i s t r i b u - t i o n o f benefits p r o p o s e d by t h e W C C include t h e u t i l i z a t i o n o f such k n o w l e d g e o n t h e basis o f n e e d . T h i s P r o t e s t a n t n o t e o f bias o n behalf o f t h o s e p o t e n t i a l l y left o u t o f t h e benefits o f r e - s e a r c h leans a g a i n s t t h e w i n d o f b e n e f i t s f o r t h e f a v o r e d f e w - p e r h a p s t h o s e p e o p l e s a n d nations t h a t f u n d t h e p r o j e c t . Such a bias recalls t h e scientific a n d h u m a n c o m m u n i t y t o its universalis- t i c c h a r a c t e r . It elevates t h e issue o f t h e social r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f scientific i n q u i r y , t h e fact t h a t use f o r w h o m and f o r w h a t is inev- itably p a r t o f t h e q u e s t i o n o f " t o i n q u i r e o r n o t t o i n q u i r e " . A n d w h e n such e n o r m o u s f u n d i n g is i n v o l v e d f r o m public s o u r c e s , t h e n a t u r e o f the public t o b e n e f i t is p r o p e r a n d necessary.

T h e l a r g e j u s t i c e issue f o r t h e H u m a n G e n o m e P r o j e c t is its valué p o r h u m a n s w h e n c o m p a r e d w i t h o t h e r scientific p r o j e c t s . T h e H u m a n G e n o m e P r o j e c t as t h e r e c i p i e n t o f e x t r a o r d i n a r y b e n e f i t s ( f u n d i n g , s t a t u s , p r e s t i g e ) b e c o m e s i t s e l f , q u i t e a p - p r o p r i a t e l y , t h e c e n t e r o f j u s t i c e debates and struggles. B u t t h a t issue is n o t a d d r e s s e d by e i t h e r o f t h e papers b e f o r e us.

In c o n c l u s i ó n , t h e P r o t e s t a n t p r i n c i p i e o f r e f u s i n g t o a b s o l u t i z e 153 t h e r e l a t i v e i n t r o d u c e s t h e p r i n c i p i e o f s k e p t i c i s m i n t o t h e p r o -

j e c t i o n o f a n y goals t o be r e a l i z e d t h r o u g h t h e h a r v e s t i n g o f k n o w l e d g e a n d / o r its a p p l i c a t i o n s , and f o r m o n i t o r i n g f r o m t h e beginning f o r consequences, m e t h o d o l o g y and benefits. A s a f o r m - ative m o v e m e n t t h a t c a r r i e s f o r w a r d h u m a n valúes, P r o t e s t a n t p o l i c i e s a f f i r m s c i e n t i f i c i n q u i r y and t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n t o h e a l t h w h i l e t h e y a d v ó c a t e f o r a fair d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e benefits o f al!

such scientific i n q u i r y a n d r e s e a r c h , i n c l u d i n g t h a t p e r t a i n i n g t o t h e H u m a n G e n o m e P r o j e c t .

A P r o t e s t a n t d e n o m i n a t i o n a l p o l i c y s t a t e m e n t a d o p t e d in 1989 c o n t a i n s t h e s e w o r d s , a n d t h e y a r e p e r h a p s an a p p r o p r i a t e place t o c o n c l u d e :

" W i t h o u r n e w k n o w l e d g e c o m e s n e w r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s . A s Jesús f e d t h e h u n g r y and h e a l e d t h e sick, w e a r e called t o f o l l o w his e x a m p l e a n d t o use o u r n e w [ k n o w l e d g e a n d ] abil- ities t o b r i n g healing and sustenance t o p e o p l e e v e r y w h e r e " . (The Church a n d Genet/c Engineering, p. 3)

T h e a f f i r m a t i o n m a y be seen as a c o u n s e l o f naivete and s e n t i - m e n t a l i t y by t h e cynical. B u t i t may be g r a s p e d as a c o u n c e l o f p r o f o u n d i m p o r t a n c e b y t h o s e w h o s e s e a r c h f o r h u m a n w e l l being is b o t h t h e shining star g u i d l n g t h e i r r e s e a r c h and also t h e s u b t e r r a n e a n m o t i v e o f t h e i r o f t e n u n e x a m i n e d , u n n a m e d b u t p o w e r f u l f a i t h .

154

R E F E R E N C E S

"Biotechnology: Its Challenge t o the Churches and the W o r l d " . The W o r l d Council of Churches, Subunit on Church and Society. Geneva, Switzerland, 1989.

" T h e Church and Genetic Engineering". A Proposed Pronouncement.

N e w Y o r k : The United Church of Christ, U.S.A., 1989.

"Genetic Science f o r Human Benefit". A Policy Statement of the Na- tional Council of the Churches of Christ in the U.S.A., N e w York, NY, U.S.A., 1986.

T i l l í c h , Paul. The Protestant Era (abridged). Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1957.

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B I O L O G I C A ! . D E T E R M I N I S M A N D T H E C O N C E P T O F S O C I A L

R E S P O N S I B I L I T Y .

T H E L E S S O N O F C A R R I E B U C K

j . DaWd Smith

D e p t . o f H u m a n D e v e l o p m e n t , L y n e h b u r g C o l l e g e , L y n e h b u r g , Virginia ( U S A )

A B S T R A C T

Carrie Buck, a young girl who was diagnosed as being m e n t a l l y defícient, was sterilized to avoid transmission o f this defíciency to her descendants.

Her case passed into the history o f law. The idea o f

ochieving improvements and eradicating problems

enveloped the case, both these ideas being o f a so-

cial type. Nevertheless, this a n d other experiences

have shown how erroneous it is to attempt to reduce

human Ufe to biology, disregarding ethical and social

considerations on which human rights are based. In

this sense, the H u m a n Genome Project must display

respect f o r Ufe a n d overeóme the diverse inac-

curacies o f the eugenesic movement

In 1927 a y o u n g w o m a n n a m e d C a r r i e B u c k w a s i n v o l u n t a r i l y | 59 s t e r i l i z e d . She w a s t h e f l r s t p e r s o n t o be s u b j e c t e d t o t h a t s u r -

g e r y u n d e r t h e a u t h o r i t y o f a V i r g i n i a law. T h e l a w a l l o w e d t h e state t o i m p o s e s t e r i l i z a t i o n o n p e r s o n s d i a g n o s e d as b e i n g i n - c o m p e t e n t and f o u n d t o be likely t o genetically t r a n s m i t physical, psychological o r social deficiencies t o t h e i r o f f s p r i n g . C a r r i e B u c k had ben c o m m i t t e d t o an i n s t i t u t i o n f o r p e o p i e diagnosed as " f e e - b l e m i n d e d " . T h e c o m m i t m e n t f o l l o w e d h e r g i v i n g b i r t h t o an i l l e g i t i m a t e c h i l d . C a r r i e ' s m o t h e r had b e e n c o m m i t t e d t o t h e same i n s t i t u t i o n s o m e years earlier. H e r i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n appar- e n t l y r e s u l t e d f r o m p r o s t i t u t i o n a n d o t h e r socially u n a c c e p t a b l e b e h a v i o r . I t w a s r e p o r t e d t h a t C a r r i e ' s i n f a n t d a u g h t e r a i s o s h o w e d signs o f being m e n t a l l y d e f i c i e n t .

T o t h e physicians, l a w y e r s and politicians w h o w i s h e d t o see t h e V i r g i n i a s t e r i l i z a t i o n l a w c o n s t i t u t i o n a l l y v a l i d a t e d , C a r r i e B u c k s e e m e d t o be t h e p e r f e c t p e r s o n f o r t h e t e s t o f t h e law. T h e ar- g u m e n t c o u l d be m a d e t h a t h e r m o t h e r w a s m e n t a l l y d e f i c i e n t , t h a t C a r r i e w a s m e n t a l l y r e t a r d e d a n d t h a t h e r b a b y s h o w e d signs o f f e e b l e m i n d e d n e s s . T h i s e v i d e n c e o f g e n e t i c t r a n s m i s s i o n o f t h e i r i n f e h o r i t y w o u l d t h e n be p r e s e n t e d as i l l u s t r a t i n g t h e n e e d f o r an i n v o l u n t a r y s t e r i l i z a t i o n s t a t u t e . T h e j u d g e m e n t o f t h o s e w h o s e l e c t e d C a r r i e f o r t h e t e s t case p r o v e d t o be s o u n d . T h e S u p r e m e C o u r t u p h e l d t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i t y o f t h e l a w in t h e case w h i c h c a m e t o be k n o w n as Buck /. Be//. In d e l i v e r i n g t h e m a j o r i t y o p i n i ó n in t h e d e c i s i ó n , Justice O l i v e r W e n d e l l H o l m e s w r o t e :

" W e have seen m o r e t h a n o n c e t h a t t h e public w e l f a r e m y cali u p o n t h e b e s t citizens f o r t h e i r lives. It w o u l d be strange if i t c o u l d n o t cali u p o n t h o s e w h o a l r e a d y sap t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h e State f o r t h e s e lesser sacrifices, o f t e n f e l t t o be m u c h by t h o s e c o n c e r n e d , in o r d e r t o p r e v e n t o u r b e i n g s w a m p e d w i t h i n c o m p e t e n c e . It is b e t t e r f o r all t h e w o r l d , if instead o f w a i t i n g t o e x e c u t e d e g e n e r a t e o f f s p r i n g f o r c r i m e , o r t o let t h e m s t a r v e f o r t h e i r i m b e c i l i t y , s o c i e t y can p r e v e n t t h o s e w h o a r e m a n i f e s t l y u n f i t f r o m c o n t i n u i n g t h e i r k i n d . T h e p r i n - cipie t h a t sustains c o m p u l s o r y v a c c i n a t i o n is b r o a d e n o u g h t o c o v e r c u t t i n g t h e Fallopian t u b e s . . . "

T h e s t e r i l i z a t i o n o f C a r r i e B u c k a c h i e v e d a place in legal h i s t o r y and in t h e annals o f t h e social sciences. T h e saga o f sociaj D a r - w i n i s m and eugenics in t h e U n i t e d States, i n d e e d in t h e w o r l d , simply c a n n o t be t o l d w i t h o u t r e f e r e n c e t o t h e S u p r e m e C o u r t decisión in h e r case. T h e fact t h a t t h e legal i n t e g r i t y o f c o m p u l - s o r y s t e r i l i z a t i o n w a s e n d o r s e d by t h e highest c o u r t in a c o u n t r y t h a t p r i d e d itself o n its c o m m i t m e n t t o individual f r e e d o m had a global i m p a c t . C a r r i e , as t h e s u b j e c t o f t h e case, b e c a m e an his- t o r i c a l figure o f I n t e r n a t i o n a l f a m e . C a r r i e , t h e p e r s o n , lived a life m a r k e d by w h a t had b e e n e r r o n e o u s l y c l a i m e d o f h e r and w h a t was d e c i d e d a b o u t h e r by p e o p l e o f p o w e r and influence. T h e s e

60 p e o p l e , h o w e v e r , had l i t t l e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f h e r t r u e c h a r a c t e r a n d abilities. I w i l l t r y t o ¡Ilústrate t h i s later In m y r e m a r k s .

C a r r i e w a s f o l l o w e d by t h o u s a n d s o f o t h e r p e o p l e w h o w e r e s t e r i l i z e d u n d e r t h e p r o v l s l o n s o f t h e law. Virginia's l a w also b e - c a m e t h e m o d e l f o r s t e r l l l z a t i o n s t a t u t e s in o t h e r states. A c o n - s e r v a t i v e e s t í m a t e Is t h a t 5 0 , 0 0 0 p e o p l e w e r e s t e r i l i z e d in t h e U n i t e d States by t h e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e s e s t a t u t e s . U l t i m a t e l y t h e V i r g i n i a l a w w a s t h e m o d e l used as p a r t o f t h e N a z i Race H y - g i e n e P r o g r a m . O n July 14, 1933, t h e m o d e l s t e r i l i z a t i o n a c t d e v e l o p e d by eugenics a d v ó c a t e H a r r y Laughlin, t h e same m o d e l used by V i r g i n i a , b e c a m e l a w in G e r m a n y .

T h e N a z i l a w w a s i m p l e m e n t e d s w i f t l y and b r o a d l y . By t h e e n d o f t h e f i r s t y e a r t h a t i t w a s in effect, a c c o r d i n g t o S.J. H o l m e s , o v e r 5 6 , 0 0 0 p e o p l e had b e e n f o u n d t o be d e f e c t i v e by special h e r e d i t a r y h e a l t h c o u r t s a n d had b e e n s t e r i l i z e d . H i t l e r ' s r a c e hygiene p r o g r a m s w e r e a p p l a u d e d by A m e r i c a n eugenicists. Ste- r i l i z a t i o n p r o p o n e n t Paul P o p e n o e f e l t t h a t t h e N a z i s w e r e f o l - l o w i n g a p o l i c y t h a t w a s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e best t h i n k i n g o f euge- nicists t h r o u g h o u t t h e w o r l d . K . M . L u d m e r e r q u o t e s an e d i t o r i a l s t a t e m e n t f r o m t h e A m e r i c a n p u b l i c a t i o n , Eugenical N e w s , t h a t c o n c l u d e d , " I t is d i f f i c u l t t o see h o w t h e n e w G e r m á n Steriliza- t i o n L a w c o u l d , as s o m e have suggested, b e d e f l e c t e d f r o m its p u r e l y eugenical p u r p o s e , a n d m a d e an ' i n s t r u m e n t o f t y r a n n y ' f o r t h e s t e r i l i z a t i o n o f n o n - N o r d i c r a c e s " . It w o u l d be m a n y y e a r s b e f o r e m o s t A m e r i c a n eugenicists w o u l d c o m p r e h e n d t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e i r o w n w o r k and t h e s t a r k a t r o c i t i e s o f t h e N a z i r e g i m e . It is e s t i m a t e d t h a t b e t w e e n 1933 a n d 1945, t w o m i l l i o n p e o p l e w e r e d e c l a r e d d e f e c t i v e and w e r e s t e r i l i z e d b y t h e N a z i s . Perhaps i t is because o f t h e a w f u l n e s s o f t h e o t h e r a t r o c i t i e s c o m m i t t e d d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d t h a t so l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n has b e e n f o c u s e d o n t h i s r e a l i t y . T h e d i m e n s i o n s o f t h i s i n f r i n g e - m e n t o n t h e basic r i g h t s o f s o m a n y h u m a n beings a r e , h o w e v e r , staggering. R e c o g n i z i n g t h a t t h e legal, social and scientific s o u r c e s o f t h i s p r a c t i c e w e r e l a r g e l y A m e r i c a n is, f o r t h i s A m e r i c a n , chilling.

O t t o H o f m a n n , a high r a n k i n g SS officer, w a s o n e o f t h e facilita- t o r s o f policies a i m e d a t w h a t t h e Nazis c o n c e p t u a l i z e d as t h e " f i - nal s o l u t i o n t o t h e Jewish q u e s t i o n " . H e has head o f t h e Race and S e t t l e m e n t M a i n O f f i c e o f t h e Reichsfuehrer-SS. T h e f i f t h v o l u m e o f Triáis o f the W a r Crimináis Before the N u r e m b e r g Miiitary Tribu- nais c o n t a i n s r e c o r d s o f t h e c o n v i c t i o n f o r w a r c r i m e s o f O t t o H o l f m a n n . It states t h a t t h e e v i d e n c e "establishes b e y o n d any rea- sonable d o u b t H o l f a n n ' s g u i l t a n d c r i m i n a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e f o l l o w i n g c r i m i n a l a c t i v i t i e s p u r s u e d in t h e f u r t h e r a n c e o f t h e G e r m a n i z a r o n p r o g r a m : "... f o r c i b l e a b o r t i o n s o n Eastern w o r k - ers; t a k i n g a w a y infants o f Eastern w o r k e r s ; t h e ¡Ilegal an u n j u s t p u n i s h m e n t o f f o r e ¡ g n nat¡onals f o r sexual ¡ n t e r c o u r s e w ¡ t h G e r - mans; [ a n d ] h a m p e h n g t h e r e p r o d u c t i o n o f f o r e ¡ g n p o p u l a t l o n s [ f o r c e d steril¡zat¡ons]...".

W h i l e t h e fifth v o l u m e o f r e c o r d s o f t h e N u r e m b e r g T r i b u n a l s | 6 c o n t a i n s t h e c o n v i c t i o n o f O t t o H o f m a n n , t h e f o u r t h v o l u m e i n - cludes d o c u m e n t s w h i c h w e r e e n t e r e d in his d e f e n s e . A m o n g t h e m is an a b s t r a c t p r e p a r e d in 1937 by t h e I n f o r m a t i o n Service o f t h e Racial-Political O f f i c e o f t h e Reich A d m i n i s t r a r o n . It c o n - c e r n s w h a t a r e called " R a c e P r o t e c t i o n L a w s o f O t h e r C o u n - t r i e s " a n d a p p e a r s t o have b e e n e n t e r e d as e v i d e n c e o n H o f - m a n n ' s behalf t o s h o w t h a t t h e p r a c t i c e s he engaged in d u r i n g t h e w a r w e r e based o n p r e c e d e n t s f r o m o t h e r " c i v i l i z e d " na- t i o n s . It c o n t a i n s a litany o f s t e r i l i z a t i o n policies f r o m c o u n t r i e s including D e a m a r k , Finland, N o r w a y and S w e d e n . T h e litany ends w i t h a d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n o f s t e r i l i z a t i o n l a w s in t h e U n i t e d States. It r e f e r e n c e s t h e d e c i s i ó n in C a r r i e Buck's case.

" U N I T E D S T A T E S O F A M E R I C A

... T h o s e affected by t h e l a w w e r e p r i m a r i l y c r i m i n á i s , f e e b l e - m i n d e d , insane, e p i l e p t i c s , a l c o h o l i c and n a r c o t i c a d d l c t s , as w e l l as p r o s t i t u t e s . A l t h o u g h a l m o s t all states t r y t o c a r r y o u t s t e r i l i z a t i o n o n a v o l u n t a r y basis t h e c o u r t s have m o r e t h a n o n c e o r d e r e d c o m p u l s o r y s t e r i l i z a t i o n s . In a j u d g e m e n t o f t h e S u p r e m e C o u r t o f [ 1 9 2 7 ] . . . it says, a m o n g o t h e r t h i n g s : ' I t is b e t t e r f o r e v e r y b o d y if s o c i e t y , instead o f w a i t i n g u n t i l it has t o e x e c u t e d e g e n e r a t e o f f s p r i n g o r leave t h e m t o s t a r v e b e - cause o f f e e b l e - m i n d e d n e s s , can p r e v e n t o b v i o u s l y i n f e r i o r i n - dividuáis f r o m p r o p a g a t i n g t h e i r o w n k i n d . T h e p r i n c i p i e j u s - t i f y i n g c o m p u l s o r y v a c c i n a t i o n is b r o a d e n o u g h t o c o v e r t h e s e v e r i n g o f t h e Fallopian t u b e s " .

T h e w o r d s o f Justice O l i v e r W e n d e l l H o l m e s in t h i s c o n t e x t a r e a s o b e r i n g r e m a i n d e r o f t h e c r e d i b i l i t y b e s t o w e d u p o n eugenic p h i l o s o p h y and p o l i c y , a n d t h e a t r o c i t i e s c o m m i t t e d , as D a n i e l Kevles has so w e l l d e s c r i b e d it, " i n t h e ñ a m e o f e u g e n i c s " .

H o l m e s in w r i t i n g t h e m a j o r i t y o p i n i ó n in Buck v. Bell used t h e n o w f a m o u s p h r a s e , " t h r e e g e n e r a t i o n s o f imbéciles a r e e n o u g h " . H i s r e a s o n i n g a n d language w e r e c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e e u g e n i c v i e w t h a t m a n y socially u n d e s i r a b l e t r a i t s , i n c l u d i n g m e n t a l r e t a r - d a r o n , w e r e largely h e r e d i t a r y . I n h e r e n t in this v i e w w a s t h e idea t h a t even c o m p l e x h u m a n t r a i t s c o u l d be t r a c e d t o s i m p l e g e n e t - ic causes. Eugenicists b e l i e v e d , in fact, t h a t m o s t h u m a m charac- t e r i s t i c s c o u l d be l i n k e d d i r e c t l y t o single genes. T h e y held t h a t n o t o n l y physical t r a i t s like eye c o l o r and height, b u t also p e r s o n - ality a t t r i b u t e s w e r e d e t e r m i n e d by a single g e n e . T h i s c o n f i d e n c e in M e n d e l i a n g e n e t i c s w a s e x t e n d e d t o t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f o c c u p a t i o n a l p r e f e r e n c e s , a c a d e m i c i n t e r e s t s , t a l e n t s , a n d e v e n c h a r a c t e r s t r e n g t h s a n d w e a k n e s s e s . It w a s c l a i m e d t h a t m e c h a n i - cal skill, a r t i s t i c a n d musical a b i l i t y w e r e s i m p l e recessive g e n e t r a i t s . " S h i f t l e s s n e s s " w a s also i n c l u d e d in t h i s list o f recessive t r a i t s . V i o l e n t t e m p e r a m e n t , i t w a s r e a s o n e d , m u s t be a d o m i - nant gene t r a i t since it d o e s n o t skip g e n e r a t i o n s . In a s t u d y e n - t i t l e d The N o m family: a study in Cacogenics C h a r l e s D a v e n p o r t r e -

I 62 p o r t e d t h a t laziness w a s a d o m i n a n t t r a i t , w h i l e abusiva d r i n k i n g and shyness w e r e s i m p l e recessives. T h e s e e n t h u s i a s t i c e x c u r - sions i n t o b i o l o g i c a l d e t e r m i n i s m and r e d u c t i o n i s m m a y s o u n d h u m o r o u s w h e n v i e w e d f r o m o u r c u r r e n t p e r s p e c t i v a b u t t h e y w e r e t h e basis f o r g r e a t h u m a n t r a g e d y . Such s i m p l i s t i c v i e w s a b o u t h u m a n beings w e r e i n h e r e n t in t h e c o n v i c t i o n t h a t s t e r i l i - z a t i o n w o u l d help s t e m a f e a r e d f l o o d o f i n c o m p e t e n c e r e s u l t i n g f r o m g e n e t i c b l i g h t , a n d t h e y w e r e u s e d t o s t e r e o t y p e w h o l e classes o f p e o p l e .

W h i l e t h e eugenics m o v e m e n t w a s obsessed w i t h race a n d e t h - n i c i t y , it also f o c u s e d o n p e r c e i v e d d i f f e r e n c e s in social classes w i t h i n racial a n d e t h n i c g r o u p s . In h e r b o o k , W h i t e Trash: The Eugenic Family Studies, N i c o l e H a h n R a f t e r p o r t r a y s t h e f a m i l y d e g e n e r a c y studies w h i c h w e r e c o n d u c t e d as p a r t o f t h e e u g e n - ics m o v e m e n t In t h e U n i t e d States as having b e e n f o c u s e d p r i - m a r i l y o n l o w e r class c a u c a s i a n f a m i l i e s , o n t h e " p o o r w h i t e t r a s h " o f e a r l y t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y A m e r i c a . W h e n C a r r i e Buck's case w a s f i r s t h e a r d a r e p o r t w a s s u b m i t t e d as t e s t i o m o n y by H a r r y Laughlin, t h e a u t h o r o f t h e m o d e l s t e r i l i z a t i o n l a w t h a t V i r - ginia has a d o p t e d . H e had analyzed I n f o r m a t i o n o n C a r r i e a n d h e r f a m i l y and he o f f e r e d his r e p o r t in s u p p o r t o f h e r being s t e r i - lized. In c o m m e n t i n g o n h e r heritage, Laughlin, said, " T h e s e p e o p l e b e l o n g t o t h e shiftless, i g n o r a n t and w o r t h l e s s class o f anti-social w h i t e s o f t h e S o u t h . . . [ t h e y a r e an] i g n o r a n t and m o v i n g class o f p e o p l e . . . " .

H e n r y G o d d a r d in his b o o k o n t h e K a l l i k a k f a m i l y m a d e t h e f o l - l o w i n g c o m m e n t s a b o u t t h e k i n d o f l o w e r s o c i o - e c o n o m i c class p e o p l e w h o w e r e t h e subjeets o f his s t u d y : " I f all o f t h e s l u m dis- t r i e t s o f o u r cities w e r e r e m o v e d t o m o r r o w a n d m o d e l t e n e - m e n t s b u i l t in t h e i r places, w e w o u l d still have slums in a w e e k ' s t i m e because w e have t h e s e m e n t a l l y d e f e c t i v e p e o p l e w h o can n e v e r be t a u g h t t o live o t h e r w i s e t h a n as t h e y have b e e n living.

N o t u n t i l w e t a k e c a r e o f t h i s class and see t o i t t h a t t h e i r lives a r e g u i d e d by i n t e l l i g e n t p e o p l e , shall w e r e m o v e t h e s e s o r e s f r o m o u r social life".

It w a s o n t h e basis o f t h e s e beliefs a n d t h i s r e a s o n i n g t h a t C a r - r i e B u c k w a s s t e r i l i z e d . T h u s t h e p r e c e d e n t w a s e s t a b l i s h e d f o r t h e s u s p e n s i ó n o f t h e r i g h t s o f s o m e i n d i v i d u á i s a n d classes f o r t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f s o c i e t y . T h e s e v i e w s , w i t h t h e c r e d i b i l i t y af- f o r d e d t h e m b y b e i n g g r o u n d e d in w h a t w a s a c c e p t e d as s c i e n - t i f i c f a c t , b e c a m e p o w e r f u l f o r c e s in shaping p u b l i c o p i n i ó n a n d social p o l i c y .

T h e eugenic e v i d e n c e and p r e d i c t i o n s in C a r r i e Buck's case have p r o v e n in m y o w n i n v e s t i g a t i o n s , a n d t h o s e o f o t h e r s , t o be g r o s s l y i n a e c u r a t e . C a r r i e ' s c h i l d , Vivían, alleged t o r e p r e s e n t t h e

" t h i r d g e n e r a t i o n o f i m b é c i l e s " , actually g r e w t o be an a t t r a c t i v e child w h o w a s a h o n o r r o l l s t u d e n t . C a r r i e , c h a r g e d w i t h being t h e s e c o n d g e n e r a t i o n o f i m b é c i l e s , w a s p a r o l e d a f t e r h e r s t e r i l i -

z a t i o n t o a m o u n t a i n village w h e r e she s o o n m a r r i e d t h e d e p u t y | 63 sheriff. T h e r e she Üved a m o d e s t , b u t p r o d u c t i v e and r e s p e c t a b l e ,

life. F o l l o w i n g t h e d e a t h o f h e r h u s b a n d she m o v e l t o a l a r g e r t o w n w h e r e she e a r n e d h e r living c a r i n g f o r e l d e r l y and c h r o n i - cally ¡11 p e o p l e . Friends and e m p l o y e r s a t t e s t e d t o t h e f a c t t h a t C a r r i e B u c k w a s n o t m e n t a l l y d e f i c i e n t . I n d e e d , m e n t a l h e a l t h professionals w h o o b s e r v e d h e r late in h e r life f o u n d n o e v i d e n c e o f m e n t a l r e t a r d a t i o n . A b i t m o r e r e s e a r c h , in fact, o n t h e p a r t o f t h o s e w h o c l a i m e d t o have f o u n d defectiveness t o be i n n a t e in C a r r i e ' s g e n e a l o g y w o u l d have u n c o v e r e d a q u i t e d i f f e r e n t pie- t u r e . If t h e eugenic f i e l d r e s e a r c h e r s in h e r case had l o o k e d j u s t t w o m o r e b r a n c h i n g s b a c k o n C a r r i e ' s f a m i l y t r e e t h e y w o u l d have d i s c o v e r e d t h a t h e r g r a n d f a t h e r and g r e a t g r a n d f a t h e r in t h e B u c k line w e r e b o t h p r o s p e r o u s f a r m e r s . A n a l y s i s o f a n o t h e r b r a n c h i n g b a c k w o u l d have r e v e a l e d t h a t , ironically, she w a s des- c e n d e n t f r o m o n e o f t h e m o s t p r o m i n e n t families in V i r g i n i a ' s h i s t o r y .

C a r r i e ' s s t o r y is a t r a g i c saga o f o n e i n j u r e d life. It is also an i m p o r t a n t i l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h e a l l u r e a n d d a n g e r s o f b i o l o g i c a l d e t e r m i n i s t i c t h o u g h t . T h e l a w y e r s , p h y s i c i a n s and s c i e n t i s t s i n - v o l v e d w i t h t h e case w e r e n o t s i n i s t e r f i g u r e s i n t e n t u p o n d o i n g h a r m t o t h i s w o m a n o r t h e class o f p e o p l e she r e p r e s e n t - e d . T h e y w e r e c o n v i n c e d t h a t t h e y w e r e s e r v i n g t h e b e s t i n t e r - ests o f s o c i e t y b y t h e i r a c t i o n s . T h e y s a w in C a r r i e ' s life w h a t t h e y e x p e c t e d t o see, a n d t h e y u s e d i t t o a d v a n c e a s c i e n t i f i c and p o l i t i c a l p o s i t i o n t h a t t h e y f e l t w o u l d lead t o t h e e r a d i c a - t i o n o f s o c i a l p r o b l e m s a n d p r e v e n t i o n o f s u f f e r i n g . T h e y w e r e w r o n g . T h e i d e a t h a t c r e a t e d t h e m i s f o r t u n e o f C a r r i e B u c k has r e p e a t e d l y p r o d u c e d t r a g i c r e s u l t s . T h a t idea is t h a t h u m a n life can b e g u i d e d b y t h e r e a l i t i e s o f b i o l o g i c a l d e t e r m i n i s m . T h e r e s u l t has b e e n t h a t s o m e f a m i l i e s , s o m e n a t i o n a l i t i e s , s o m e r a c e s , s o m e e t h n i c g r o u p s a n d s o m e social classes have b e e n v i e w e d as b e i n g n a t u r a l l y , i n h e r e n t l y , a n d u n m o d i f i a b l y I n - f e r i o r . It has b e e n o n t h i s basis t h a t t h e y have b e e n d e p r i v e d o f t h e i r d i g n i t y a n d r i g h t s .

R o b e r t C y n k a r has n o t e d t h a t Justice O l i v e r W e n d e l l H o l m e s in 1920, s e v e n y e a r s b e f o r e t h e d e c i s i ó n in Buck Bell, o b s e r v - e d , " T h e l a w is t h e w i t n e s s a n d e x t e r n a l d e p o s i t o f o u r m o r a l life. Its h i s t o r y is t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e m o r a l d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e r a c e " . C y n k a r also q u o t e s H o l m e s ' s b o o k p u b l i s h e d in 1881 e n - t i t l e d The Common Law. O n t h e f i r s t page o f t h a t b o o k H o l m e s said:

"... T h e life o f t h e l a w has n o t b e e n logic; i t has b e e n e x p e - r i e n c e . T h e f e l t necessities o f t h e t i m e , t h e p r e v a l e n t m o r a l and p o l i t i c a l t h e o r i e s , i n t u i t i o n s o f public p o l i c y , a v o w e d o r u n c o n s c i o u s , e v e n t h e p r e j u d i c e s w h i c h j u d g e s s h a r e w i t h t h e i r f e l l o w - m e n , have had a g o o d deal m o r e t o d o t h a n t h e s y l l o g i s m in d e t e r m i n i n g t h e rules by w h i c h m e n s h o u l d be g o v e r n e d . . . i t c a n n o t be d e a l t w i t h as if i t c o n t a i n e d o n l y t h e a x i o m s and c o r o l l a r i e s o f a b o o k o f m a t h e m a t i c s " .

64 T h e H u m a n G e n o m e P r o j e c t w i l l m o s t c e r t a i n l y r e s u l t in s c i e n - t i f i c k n o w l e d g e a n d m e d i c a l c a p a b i l i t i e s w h i c h w i l l b r i n g i n t o q u e s t i o n t h e issue o f " f e l t n e c e s s i t i e s " in r e l a t i o n t o f u n d a m e n t a l valúes. T h e t e c h n o l o g y o f t u b a l ligation a n d v a s e c t o m y w e r e d e - v e l o p e d in t h e 1890s, by 1927 i t w a s a " f e l t n e c e s s i t y " o f s o c i e t y t h a t t h o s e d e e m e d d e f e c t i v e o n t h e basis o f e u g e n i c s c i e n c e m u s t b e s t e r i l i z e d . T h e H u m a n G e n o m e P r o j e c t w i l l p r o v i d e i n - sights i n t o h u m a n n a t u r e w i t h a v a l i d i t y i n c o m p a r b l e t o t h e inac- curacies o f t h e eugenics m o v e m e n t . It w i l l p r o v i d e f o r t h e d e - v e l o p m e n t o f t e c h n o l o g i e s w h i c h w i l l e c l i p s e a n y t h i n g t h a t m e d i c i n e has k n o w n b e f o r e . T h e p o t e n t i a l s f o r h u m a n b e n e f i t a r e o b v i o u s l y e n o r m o u s . I t s e e m s t o t h i s o b s e r v e r , h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e g r e a t e s t challenge p o s e d by t h e H u m a n G e n o m e P r o - j e c t w i l l be t o c o n d u c t its w o r k a n d p r o v i d e t h e b e n e f i t s o f its e f f o r t s t o a w o r l d o f p e o p l e w h o a r e seen as m u c h m o r e t h a n t h e s u m t o t a l o f t h e i r b i o l o g i c a l c o m p o n e n t s . T o rise a b o v e t h e t e m p t a t i o n s and d a n g e r s o f b i o l o g i c a l d e t e r m i n i s m w e m u s t c o n - t i n u é t o see p e o p l e , w i t h all d u e r e s p e c t t o B.F. S k i n n e r , as agents o f f r e e d o m a n d d i g n i t y .

O u r f i r s t c o m m i t m e n t m u s t be, I believe, t o basic h u m a n rights and valúes. Even w h e n t h e capacity t o i n t e r v e n e e x p e d i e n t l y in t h e lives o f o t h e r s seems t o be b e s t f o r t h e m and s o c i e t y ; e v e n w h e n t h e " f e l t necessities o f o u r t i m e s " s e e m t o u r g e us so c o m - pellingly t o a c t q u i c k l y and efficiently, this m u s t be t r u e . T h e e t h i - cal f o u n d a t i o n s o f h u m a n life a r e t o be f o u n d in h u m a n s o u r c e s . T h e eugenicists l o o k e d t o e v o l u t i o n a r y t h e o r y and M e n d e l i a n g e - netics f o r m o r a l t r u t h s . T h e y f e l t t h a t n a t u r a l s e l e c t i o n and M e n - delian g e n e d i s t r i b u t i o n s c o u l d p r o v i d e m o d e l s f o r social ethics.

T h e failure o f t h i s a p p r o a c h w a s e v i d e n c e d in t h e needless i n s t i - t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f t h o s e d e e m e d t o b e " u n f i t " f o r t h e s o c i a l

" s t r u g g l e " , in t h e s t e r i l i z a t i o n o f p e o p l e i n a c c u r a t e l y assessed t o be t h e c a r r i e r s o f d e f e c t i v e genes and in t h e m o r a l h o r r o r s o f t h e h o l o c a u s t .

M o r a l a n d e t h i c a l a g e n c y is an a t t r i b u t e o f p e o p l e , n o t o f sci- e n c e o r t h e scientific m e t h o d . T h e r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t w e a r e e t h i - cal a n d m o r a l a g e n t s , a n d t h a t t h e d e c i s i o n s o f w h a t w e s o u l d d o , as o p p o s e d t o w h a t w e can d o , r e s t s w i t h us as p e o p l e in i n t i m i d a t i n g . O n t h e o t h e r hand, it is e x c i t i n g . I believe t h i s m e e t - i n g is a n e x p r e s s i o n o f t h a t r e c o g n i t i o n . A s t h e p o w e r o f s c i e n c e f o r h u m a n b e n e f i t g r o w s t h r o u g h t h e w o r k o f t h e H u - m a n G e n o m e P r o j e c t , s o g r o w s t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f e t h i c a l q u e s t i o n s a b o u t t h e use a n d y i e l d o r t h a t p o w e r . T h e g r e a t sig- n i f i c a n c e o f t h i s c o n f e r e n c e m a y b e t h e o p p o r t u n i t i e s i t p r o - v i d e s f o r e x c h a n g e s b e t w e e n p e o p l e w h o a r e m o t i v a t e d by t h e m a k i n g o f d i s c o v e r i e s , a n d t h o s e w h o s e e k t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e h u m a n t r u t h o f t h o s e d i s c o v e r i e s . I a m h o n o r e d t o b e a p a r t i c - i p a n t in t h i s f o r u m , a n d I f e e l a sense o f e x h i l a r a t i o n a t t h e p o t e n t i a l t h a t t h e s e c o n v e r s a t i o n s w i l l have f o r t h e f u t u r e . I a m

also g r a t e f u l f o r t h e i m p o r t a n c e t h a t t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o s p e a k | 65 w i t h t h i s d i s t i n g u i s h e d g a t h e r i n g b e s t o w s o n t h e life o f a p o o r ,

u n e d u c a t e d w o m a n w h o d e v o t e d h e r life t o c a r i n g f o r o t h e r s , m y p r e s e n t a t i o n t o y o u is d e d i c a t e d t o C a r r i e B u c k .

66

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B u c k v. B e l l . 1927. 274 U.S. 200. 47 S. Ct. 584.

C y n k a r , R. J . 1981. "Buck v. Bell: 'Felt Necessities' v. Fundamental Va- lúes". Columbia Law Rev/ew. 8 1 . pp. 1418-1461.

E s t a b r o o k , A . H . a n d D a v e n p o r t , C . 1912. The Nom Family: A Study in Cacogenics. Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.: Eugenics Record Office.

H o l m e s , O . W . 1881. The Common Law. Boston: Little, B r o w n and Company.

H o l m e s , O . W . 1920. Coi/ecíed Legal Papers. Buffalo, N.Y.: W.S. Hein.

H o l m e s , S . J . 1936. Human Genet/cs ond Its Social Impon. N e w York:

McGraw-Hill.

K e v l e s , D. J. 1984. In the Nome of Eugenics: Genetics and the Uses of Hu- man Hereditary. N e w Y o r k : Knopf.

L u d m e r e r , K. M. 1972. Genet/cs and American Society. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

L a u g h l i n , H . H . 1929. The Legal Status of Eugenical Sterilization. Chica- go: Psychopathic Laboratory of the Municipal C o u r t of Chicago.

R a f t e r , N . H . 1988. White Trash: The Eugenic Family Studies, 1877-1919.

Boston: Northeastern University Press.

S m l t h , J . D. 1985. Minds Made Feeble: The Myth and Legacy of the Kal- likaks. Austin, Texas: Pro-Ed.

S m i t h , J . D. a n d N e l s o n , K . R . 1989. The Sterilization of Carrie Buck.

Far Hills, N.J.: N e w Horizon Press.

Triáis o f W a r Crimináis Before the N u r e m b e r g M i i i t a r y Tribunals.

( 1 9 5 0 ) . V o l . 4 . W a s h i n g t o n D . C . : U.S. G o v e r n m e n t P r i n t i n g O f - f i c e .

Triáis o f W a r Crimináis Before the N u r e m b e r g M i i i t a r y Tribunals.

( 1 9 5 0 ) . V o l . 5. W a s h i n g t o n D . C . : U.S. G o v e r n m e n t P r i n t i n g O f - fice.

67

T H E H U M A N : A P R O T E S T A N T C H R I S T I A N V I E W

Jack L Stotts

A u s t i n P r e s b y t e r i a n T h e o l o g i c a l S e m i n a r / , A u s t i n , T e x a s ( U S A )

A B S T R A C T

The deciphering o f human genetic composition prob-

ably poses once more the question o f what man re-

ally is. This is an oíd question on the human that can

clearly be interpreted from a religious viewpoint. This

analysis begins with the premise that man was cre-

ated in the image and likeness o f God, from which so-

lutions derive that can be understood from the politi-

cal-social a n d biological points o f view. However,

Protestantism o/so gronts man an active role as the

administrator o f creation. This function can be under-

stood as a capacity to m a n i p ú l a t e a n d it is this

interpretation that should be carefully analysed i f it is

not to become a moral justification for certain appli-

cations o f science and technology. On the contrary, it

is a capacity that should be impregnated with humil-

ity, o/so bearing in mind that man, the scientist, con-

fronts problems with the category o f mysteries that

are hard to so/ve. Religión a n d science, therefore,

have a common aim: man.

This p a p e r w i l l begin w i t h Miguel C e r v a n t e s a n d c o n c l u d e w i t h a | 69 r e f e r e n c e t o W . H . A u d e n , distinguished a u t h o r s , r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s

o f d i s t i n c t i v e h i s t o r i c a l eras. In b e t w e e n a p e r s p e c t i v e based o n a P r o t e s t a n t c o n s t r u a l o f t h e w o r l d w i l l be o f f e r e d . T h e i n t e n d e d r e s u l t is an e x p l o r a t i o n o f h o w o n e religious t r a d i t i o n , and t h a t far r i c h e r a n d v a r i e d t h a n can be suggested, may, can a n d s h o u l d r e s p o n d t o t h e H u m a n G e n o m e P r o j e c t w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e h u m a n .

Religión as I a m using t h e t e r m means t h e h u m a n a t t e m p t t o af- firm and t o deal w i t h , t h r o u g h r i t u a l , intellectual actions, and m o r - al b e h a v i o r , an U l t í m a t e P o w e r w h o s e i n t e n t i o n is g o o d . By U l t í - m a t e P o w e r I m e a n a f o r c é t h a t is able t o a c c o m p l i s h its o w n p u r p o s e s a n d is finally n o t s u b j e c t t o t h e c o n t r o l o r m a n i p u l a t i o n o f o t h e r p o w e r s . T h e a p p r o p r i a t e t e r m i n o l o g y f o r such an U l t í - m a t e P o w e r is G o d .

\

T h e o l o g y , t a l k a b o u t t h e U l t í m a t e P o w e r , is u n d e r s t o o d h e r e as a w a y o f c o n s t r u i n g t h e w o r l d so t h a t t h e critica! r e f e r e n c e p o i n t is w h a t is confessed t o be g o d . A P r o t e s t a n t c o n s t r u a l o f t h e w o r l d means t h a t t h e critical r e f e r e n c e p o i n t is t h e G o d w h o is k n o w n uniquely in Jesús C h r i s t as m e d i a t e d t h r o u g h a p a r t i c u l a r t r a d i t i o n . T h a t t r a d i t i o n gives u n c o m m o n place o f i m p o r t a n c e t o t h e reflec- t i o n and b e h a v i o r o f t h o s e r e f o r m i n g m o v e m e n t s in W e s t e r n Eu- r o p e o f t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y , C.E., m o v e m e n t s w i t h leaders such as M a r t i n L u t h e r and John C a l v i n . T o lócate oneself in t h a t t r a d i - t i o n is n o t t o claim s u p e r i o r i t y f o r it. Ñ o r is it t o r e s t r i c t one's r e - sources t o it. It is t o r e c o g n i z e t h a t o u r r e f l e c t i o n a b o u t G o d and humans is inevitably and self-consciously h i s t o r i c a l .

Miguel C e r v a n t e s , 1547 t o 1616, lived in t h e m i d s t o f an h i s t o r i - cal e a r t h q u a k e , o n e w h e r e t h e t e c t o n i c plates o f h u m a n d e f i n i - t i o n w e r e shifting. Milán K u n d e r a , a c o n t e m p o r a r y C z e c h b o r n n o v e l i s t has w r i t t e n :

" A s G o d s l o w l y d e p a r t e d f r o m t h e seat w h e r e he had d i r e c t - e d t h e u n i v e r s e a n d its o r d e r o f valúes, d i s t i n g u i s h e d g o o d f r o m evil, e n d o w e d each t h i n g w i t h m e a n i n g , D o n Q u i x o t e set f o r t h f r o m his h o u s e t o a w o r l d he c o u l d n o l o n g e r r e - c o g n i z e . In t h e absence o f t h e S u p r e m e Judge, t h e w o r l d s u d - d e n l y a p p e a r e d in its f e a r s o m e a m b i g u i t y ; t h e single d i v i n e t r u t h d e c o m p o s e d i n t o m y r i a d r e l a t i v e t r u t h s p a r c e l e d o u t by m a n . T h u s w a s b o r n t h e w o r l d o f t h e M o d e r n E r a " .

James W a l l , e d i t o r o f The Christian Century, a w e e k l y religious p e - r i o d i c a l , c o m m e n t i n g o n t h e a b o v e q u e s t i o n , suggests t h a t t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f D o n Quixote a n t i c i p a t e d t h e a g o n y o f a civilization t h a t t r a d e d c e r t a i n l y a b o u t G o d f o r t h e t a i n t e d ecstasy o f h u m a n c o n t r o l . ( W a l l , p. 5 3 1 ) .

If t h e r e w e r e w i n d m i l l s r a t h e r t h a n k n i g h t s t o b e c h a l l e n g e d b y t h e m a n f r o m La M a n c h a , t h e r e a l i t y w a s n o t in t h e e x t e r n a l

70 b u t in t h e ¡ n t e r n a l l a n d s c a p e . It w a s t h e w a y o n e s a w t h a t m a d e all t h e d i f f e r e n c e . A n d t h e M o d e r n Era had a w a y o f s e e i n g t h e w o r l d , i n c l u d i n g t h e h u m a n , t h a t d i f f e r e d f r o m its h i s t ó r i c a ! p r e d e c e s s o r s . It had as w e l l , since s e e i n g a n d v a l u i n g a r e r e l a t - e d , a d i f f e r e n t h i e r a r c h y o f valúes. N o w t h e f r e e d o m a n d a u - t o n o m y o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l self as a d e c i s i ó n m a k e r w a s a f f i r m e d

r a t h e r t h a n his o r h e r s u b o r d i n a t i o n t o e x t e r n a l c e n t e r s o f a u t h o r i t y . L i b e r a t i o n f r o m o p p r e s s i v e i n s t i t u t i o n s w a s p r o c l a i m - e d a n d C o n s o l i d a t e d . H u m a n r e a s o n b r o k e t h e c o n s t r i c t i v e b o n d s o f c u s t o m a n d r e l i g i o u s p r e t e n s i o n s t o b e t h e m e d i a t o r o f t r u t h in t h e d i v e r s e r e a l m s o f life. A n d t h e n e w h u m a n , e x - u l t i n g in a n e w s e l f - u n d e r s t a n d i n g , b e c a m e t h e e x p l o r e r a n d c o l - o n i z e r o f w o r l d s v a s t a n d m i n u t e , a t o n c e f e a r s o m e a n d b e a u t - f u l . T h e n e w s e l f b e c a m e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y a h u m b l e s e r v a n t , i n d e e d a m e n d i c a n t , b e f o r e k n o w l e d g e , a n d a P r o m e t h e a n h e r o w h o w o u l d d o all t h i n g s . M o d e r n s c i e n c e a n d t e c h n o l o g y w e r e t h i s s e l f s e x t e n s i o n s a n d e x p r e s s i o n s . A n d if m o d e r n s c i e n c e a n d t e c h n o l o g y w e r e as a t t a c h e d t o t h e p u r p o s e s a n d p o w e r s o f c o m m e r c e a n d n a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t s as t o d i s i n t e r e s t e d e n d e a v - o r s , t h e p a y o f f w a s c l e a r l y f o r a l l . O r s o i t w a s a s s u m e d , t h o u g h t h e s p o i l s o f t h e n e w e r a w e r e u n e v e n l y d i s t r i b u t e d a n d t h e s t r u g g l e o f t h e s c i e n t i s t s w a s n o t w i t h o u t its s e t b a c k s . B u t in t h e m o d e r n e r a , w i t h all its d r e a d f u l a m b i g u i t y , h u m a n s w e r e in c o n t r o l .

D o n Q u i x o t e w a s c o n f u s e d . His s t o r y w a s q u e s t i o n m a r k a b o u t t h e c o n t o u r s and c o n s e q u e n c e s o f t h e m o d e r n w o r l d . L a t e r c o l - onizers o f t h e n e w e r a w o u l d see clearly w h a t D o n Q u i x o t e vague- ly s e n s e d . T h e i c o n s o f t h e n e w e r a w e r e n e i t h e r c a t h e d r a l s ñ o r t h r o n e s . T h e y w e r e l a b o r a t o i r e s and f a c t o r i e s , s y m b o l s o f t h e r u l e o f science and t e c h n o l o g y .

In t h e m o d e r n e r a science a n d t e c h n o l o g y (applied science) w e r e r e g a r d e d n o t o n l y as w a y s o f k n o w i n g and d o i n g . T h e y b e c a m e a d o m i n a n t a n d in s o m e cases an e x c l u s i v e p a r a d i g m f o r k n o w i n g and f o r b e i n g in t h e w o r l d . T o be h u m a n w a s t o k n o w by means o f o b s e r v a t i o n a n d m e a s u r e m e n t , u n d e r c o n d i t i o n s o f causality, and t h e n t o apply w h a t had b e e n o b s e r v e d and m e a s u r e d t o spe- cific goals. Its y i e l d has b e e n i n c r e d i b l e advances in t h e w a y w e live - m o d e r n m e d i c i n e is b u t o n e , b u t s u r e l y o n e p r o f o u n d l y i m - p o r t a n t , e x a m p l e o f its a c h i e v e m e n t .

T h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f this w a y o f b e i n g h u m a n w e r e n o t w i t h o u t t h e i r c o s t s . T o t h e s u r p r i s e o f many, i r r a t i o n a l f o r c e s w e r e u n - y i e l d i n g b e f o r e r e a s o n ' s a d v a n c e s . I n d e e d s u c h f o r c e s f o u n d slight r e s i s t a n c e in r e c r u i t i n g t h e m o s t a d v a n c e d o f w h a t w a s k n o w n , and its m o s t skillful a p p l i c a t i o n , t o t h e engines o f d e s t r u c - t i o n a n d t o n a r r o w c o m m e r c i a l i n t e r e s t s . T h e d a r k u n d e r s i d e o f t h e h u m a n lay b e y o n d t h e grasp o f this m o d e r n w a y o f b e i n g h u - m a n . I n d e e d it is t h e v e r y c o n s e q u e n c e s o f m o d e r n science and t e c h n o l o g y t h a t have p r o v o k e d t h e h u m a n q u e s t i o n r a t h e r t h a n a n s w e r i n g it. N e g a t i v e e x a m p l e s o f t h a t p r o v o c a t i o n w e r e t h e

N a z i m o v e m e n t ' s use eugenics, and H i r o s h i m a , t h o u g h I d o n o t | 71 e q u a t e t h e s e in any o t h e r w a y t h a n t h i s : b o t h raised d r a m a t i c a l l y t h e q u e s t i o n o f w h a t i t means t o be h u m a n .

T h e p r o j e c t w e a d d r e s s t h i s w e e k has a s i m i l a r f u n c t i o n . It is t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e h u m a n t h a t is s t i m u l a t e d , n o t a n s w e r e d , by t h e k n o w l e d g e o f o u r g e n e t i c s t r u c t u r e . S u r e l y t h e p h i l o s o p h e r ' s m á n d a t e , " K n o w t h y s e l f , m e a n t m o r e t h a n t h e i n j u c t i o n t o k n o w o u r b i o l o g i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n , its s t r u c t u r e , p r o c e s s , a n d c o n t e n t . It m e a n t m o r e t h a n t o m e a s u r e t h e g e n e t i c stuff w h i c h shapes us. It m e a n t r a t h e r t o t a k e full m e a s u r e o f o u r s e l v e s , o f w h o w e a r e as h u m a n beings. T h e a n c i e n t q u e s t i o n s t i m u l a t e s m o d e r n i t y t o b e c o m e p o s t - m o d e r n . Such an e r a i n c o r p o r a t e s o b s e r v a t i o n , m e a s u r e m e n t s , a n d a p p l i c a t i o n i n t o a m o r e c o m - p r e h e n s i v e v i e w o f t h e h u m a n . It refuses t h e r e d u c t i o n i s m o f e x - clusivistic e p i s t e m o l o g i e s . It e n c o u r a g e s us t o p r o b é q u e s t i o n s o f w h o w e a r e , a n d w h y a n d h o w w e a r e t o live, f r o m a v a r i e t y o f angles.

T o say as m u c h is in n o w a y t o r e p u d í a t e t h e m o d e r n e r a w i t h its h u m a n l y l i b e r a t i n g i n t e n t i o n s and c o n t r i b u t i o n s . It is n o t t o s e e k a t i m e w h e n e x t e r n a ! i n s t i t u t i o n s r e p u d í a t e as i l l e g i t i m a t e t h e scientific, i m p o s i n g by f o r c é a l t é r n a t e w o r l d v i e w s . It is t o af- f i r m t h a t a n y d o m i n a n t w o r l d v i e w o f t h e h u m a n finally yields b o t h p o s i t i v e b e n e f i t s a n d p e r e n n i a l q u e s t i o n s . " M o d e r n m e d i - c i n e " , a p h i l o s o p h e r o n c e n o t e d , " r e f r e s h e s t h e p r o b l e m o f e v i l " . H e m e a n t t h a t f o r e v e r y c u r e o f a d r e a d e d d i s e a s e , t h e r e is a n o t h e r disease w a i t i n g in t h e w i n g s t o d r a m a t i z e n o t o n l y its p o t e n c y b u t its a g e n t r y o f a d e s t r u c t i v e p o w e r t h a n refuses t o be s u b d u e d , o n e q u a i n t l y called t h e d e m o n i c . F o r e x a m p l e , t o p r o l o n g life so t h a t t h e n o r m a l W e s t e r n l i f e - e x p e c t a n c y e x c e e d s t h e w i l d e s t d r e a m s o f a I 9 t h c e n t u r y r e s i d e n t is s u r e l y a p o s i t i v e gain. B u t i t is also t o fill n u r s i n g h o m e beds w i t h t h o s e w h o s e h a b i t a t i o n p e r s o n a l l y is t h e past, s o m e l o n g ago e r a p a c k e d i n t o c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n s m o r e p o w e r f u l t h a n c u r r e n t s t i m u l i , i n t o e l e c t h c a l c i r c u i t r y n o l o n g e r r e c e p t i v e t o n e w s t i m u l i . A n d w h e n t h a t c o n d i t i o n o c c u r s , t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e h u m a n is p r o v o k e d , n o t a n s w e r e d . O r , w h e n " n o t h i n g " is possible, as i t is a n u c l e a r age, o r w h e n h u m a n m u t a t i o n is in h u m a n hands, as i t is i n c r e a s - ingly, t h e n t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e g e n u i n e l y h u m a n s c u r r i e s i n t o t h e p i c t u r e . It begins t o w h i s p e r and t h e n t o d e c l a i m , " I t is o n e t h i n g t o say o f a scientific t h e o r y . It is t r u e . It is q u i t e a n o t h e r t o say, science t e a c h e s us w h a t ' t r u e ' m e a n s " ( H a r t t , p. 9 ) . In t h a t q u e r y a b o u t w h a t is m e a n s t o be t r u l y h u m a n , scientists j o i n all t h e i r n e i g h b o r s in a d e b a t e simultaneously t r a n s c e n d i n g and u n d e r - g i r d i n g t h e s c i e n t i f i c a n d t e c h n o l o g i c a l e n d e a v o r s , q u e s t i o n i n g t h e v i e w o f t h e s e l f as p r i m a r i l y o n e w h o is d e f i n e d b y k n o w i n g b y m e a s u r e m e n t a n d d o i n g b y a p p l i c a t i o n o f s u c h m e a s u r e m e n t s .

In such a s e a r c h , o n e is g r a t e f u l t o p r o j e c t s like t h e H u m a n C e - n ó m e P r o j e c t f o r raising t h e issue o f t h e h u m a n so f o r c e f u l l y ahd

| 72 c o n c r e t e l y . W h o is t h e h u m a n w h o s e b i o l o g i c a l b e i n g w e a r e c o m m i t t e d t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d t o w h o s e b e n e f i t , p r e s u m p - t i v e l y , t h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g w i l l c o n t r i b u t e ?

In t h e P r o t e s t a n t h e r i t a g e , t h o u g h by n o means in i t exclusively, t h e r o o t m e t a p h o r s o f t h e h u m a n as " C r e a t e d in t h e Image o f G o d " a n d t h e h u m a n as " S t e w a r d o f C r e a t i o n " have p r o v i d e d n o r m a t i v e m o d e l s . I w i l l s k e t c h o u t aspects o f t h e s e m o d e l s o f h u m a n i t y , p r o p o s i n g essential e l e m e n t s and suggestions o f h u m a n beingness.

First, t h e h u m a n as " I m a g e o f G o d " .

T h i s m e t a p h o r " I m a g e o f G o d " d r a w s f r o m t h e G é n e s i s a c c o u n t , t h a t a f f i r m s : " S o G o d c r e a t e d A d a m in his o w n i m a g e , in t h e i m a g e o f G o d h e c r e a t e d h i m ; m a l e a n d f e m a l e h e c r e a t e d t h e m " ( G é n e s i s 1:27). In t h e o v e r a l l c o n t e x t o f t h i s v e r s e t h e t h e o l o g i c a l c o n s t r u a l is o f G o d as a g e n e r a t i v e , n u r t u r i n g , a n d o r d e r i n g p o w e r . T h i s G o d is t h e s o u r c e o f h u m a n life, and ac- c o r d s a special place in t h e u n i v e r s e t o t h e h u m a n species and t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l . B o t h t h e h u m a n self a n d t h e h u m a n species e m b o d y d e r i v a t i v e v a l u é a n d w o r t h f r o m t h i s C r e a t o r . T h i s giv- enness o f v a l u é a n d w o r t h is n o t d e p e n d e n t o n a c h i e v e m e n t , a c c o m p l i s h m e n t , o r g o o d d e e d s , ñ o r is i t g e n e t i c a l i y d e t e r m i n e d . It is a c c o r d e d by an U l t í m a t e P o w e r . T h u s , t h e s e l f s d i g n i t y is n o t in itself and its a c c o m p l i s h m e n t s . It is b e s t o w e d . A s t h e P r o t - e s t a n t r e f o r m e r s c l a i m e d , life is j u s t i f i e d by g r a c e , i.e., p u r é giv- enness ( C r e a t i o n ) a n d p u r é a c c e p t a n c e ( f o r g i v e n e s s ) . A basic valué w a r r a n t e d by t h e v i e w o f G o d is t h a t o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l i t y o f t h e self and its i m m u n i t y f r o m e n f o r c e d d e f i n i t i o n o r d e t e r m i n a - r o n by o t h e r h u m a n s . T o be h u m a n is t o r e c e i v e o n e ' s o w n life a n d t h e w h o l e c r e a t i o n in g r a t i t u d e a n d t o a f f i r m t h e s e l f s d i g - n i t y . James G u s t a f s o n w r i t e s :

" T h e Génesis a c c o u n t o f t h e c r e a t i o n gives us, f r o m a r e l i - gious p e r s p e c t i v e , t h e m o s t solid g r o u n d s f o r h u m a n dignity.

C a l v i n , like m o s t t h e o l o g i a n s w h o have a t t e n d e d t o t h a t ac- c o u n t , finds it an assurance o f t h e special d i g n i t y o f o u r spe- cies, and a r e c o r d o f t h e d i v i n e b e n e v o l e n c e t h a t is d i r e c t e d t o w a r d us. ' W e o u g h t ' he w r o t e , 'in t h e v e r y o r d e r o f t h i n g s diligently t o c o n t é m p l a t e G o d ' s f a t h e r l y l o v e t o w a r d m a n k i n d , in t h a t he d i d n o t c r é a t e A d a m until he had lavished u p o n t h e u n i v e r s e all m a n n e r o f g o o d t h i n g s ' . If G o d had p u t A d a m o n t h e e a r t h w h i l e i t w a s still ' s t e r i l e and e m p t y ' he w o u l d n o t have p r o v i d e d s u f f i c i e n t l y f o r h u m a n w e l f a r e . ' L e t us m a k e m a n in o u r image, a f t e r o u r likeness and l e t h i m have d o m i n - i ó n o v e r t h e fish o f t h e sea, a n d o v e r t h e b i r d s o f t h e air, and o v e r t h e c a t t l e , and o v e r all t h e e a r t h , a n d o v e r e v e r y c r e e p i n g t h i n g t h a t c r e e p s u p o n t h e e a r t h , says G o d . W h i l e t h e o l o g i a n s have d i s p u t e d t h r o u g h t h e ages a b o u t w h i c h h u - m a n capacity m a k e s m a n in t h e image o f G o d , t h e have n o t

d i s p u t e d t h e n o t i o n t h a t t h e passage w a r r a n t s t h a t high d i g - 173 n i t y w h i c h w e c l a i m f o r o u r species. Ñ o r have t h e y d i s p u t e d

t h a t all t h e r e s t o f t h e c r e a t i o n exists f o r o u r s e r v i c e . W h a t h i g h e r c l a i m f o r d i g n i t y can be m a d e , f r o m a r e l i g i o u s p e r - s p e c t i v e , t h a n t h a t m a n is m a d e in t h e image and likeness o f G o d ? " ( G u s t a f s o n , p. 100).

A s e c o n d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e h u m a n is t h a t t h e self m i r r o r s t h e C r e a t o r in its f r e e d o m . T h e n o n - n e c e s s i t y o f t h e c r e a t i o n , its giv- e n n e s s , leads t o an a f f i r m a t i o n t h a t w h a t w a s c r e a t e d a n d is being c r e a t e d arises a n d is sustained o u t o f t h e f r e e d o m o f t h e C r e a t o r . T h e P r o t e s t a n t e m p h a s i s o n individual f r e e d o m and a u - t o n o m y m i r r o r s t h e f r e e d o m a n d a u t o n o m y o f G o d . It is an affir- m a t i o n o f f r e e d o m o f c h o i c e as a h u m a n capacity.

In t h e Génesis s t o r i e s o f c r e a t i o n t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e c o m m a n d ,

" O f t h e t r e e o f t h e k n o w l e d g e o f g o o d and evil y o u shall n o t e a t "

( 2 : 1 7 ) p r e s u p p o s e s f r e e d o m o f c h o i c e o n t h e p a r t o f t h e o n e being a d d r e s s e d . Such f r e e d o m ¡s t h e given capacity o f a self t o e x e r c i s e c h o i c e w i t h i n a m o r e o r less b r o a d / n a r r o w b a n d o f o p t i o n s . B u t t h e capacity f o r f r e e d o m may, i r o n i c a l l y , also lead t o b o n d a g e .

F o r P r o t e s t a n t s , g e n u i n e f r e e d o m has a te/os, a p u r p o s e . A c c o r d - ing t o a P r o t e s t a n t p e r s p e c t i v e , t o be f r e e i n v o l v e s r e s p o n s i b i - lity. T o be f r e e is t o e n t e r i n t o a r e l a t i o n s h i p o f b e i n g f r e e for o t h e r s . D i e t r i c h B o n h o e f f e r , G e r m á n t h e o l o g i a n a n d m a r t y r , w r o t e , " T h e f r e e d o m o f t h e C r e a t o r is p r o v e d by t h e f a c t t h a t he a l l o w s us t o be f r e e f o r h i m , a n d t h a t m e a n s n o t h i n g e x c e p t t h a t he c r e a t e s his i m a g e o n e a r t h " . (Creation a n d Fall, p. 3 8 ) W h a t B o n h o e f f e r g o e s o n t o cali t h e p a r a d o x o f " c r e a t e d f r e e - d o m " links d e p e n d e n c e ( d e t e r m i n i s m ) w i t h f r e e d o m ( i n d e t e r - m i n i s m ) . It is a g a i n s t " c r e a t e d f r e e d o m " t h a t h u m a n s r e b e l , m a k i n g f r e e d o m as a c a p a c i t y t o c h o o s e a s o u r c e o f i s o l a t i o n a n d l o n e l i n e s s , a g r o u n d o f p o w e r o v e r a g a i n s t , r a t h e r t h a n p o w e r w i t h . B u t t h e p o s i t i v e v a l u é called f r e e d o m e m b r a c e s t h e n o r m a t i v e a f f i r m a t i o n t h a n t h e h u m a n g i f t o f c h o o s i n g ¡s basi- cally a d e c l a r a t i o n o f a n o r m a t i v e telas g r o u n d e d in t h e p o s s i b i l - ity o f d i r e c t i n g o n e ' s s e l f - g e n e r a t i v e capacities t o w a r d t h e w e l l being o f t h e o t h e r . O n e is f r e e for o t h e r s , as G o d f r e e l y is for o t h e r s .

T h i r d , t o c r e a t e d in t h e image o f G o d is t o b e c r e a t e d social.

" M a l e and f e m a l e he c r e a t e d t h e m . " B e c r e a t e d in G o d ' s image is t o be c r e a t e d as a r e l a t i o n a l beings, a social self. W e c a n n o t be h u m a n a l o n e . W e c a n n o t be h u m a n w i t h o u t o t h e r h u m a n beings.

T h a t is t r u e biologically, psychologically, and spiritually. W e b e - c o m e o u r s e l v e s in an I n t e r a c t i v e , t r a n s a c t i o n a l w o r l d . W e have n o w a r r a n t t o a c t unilaterally, w i t h o u t r e f e r e n c e t o o t h e r s . W e gain o u r h u m a n i t y in dealing w i t h o t h e r h u m a n s . O u r f u n d a m e n t a l h u m a n c o n d i t i o n is o n e o f p l u r a l i t y . I n d i v i d u a l i t y arises o u t o f social m a t r i c e s .

74 T h i s u n d e r s t a n d i g o f t h e as social m e a n s t h a t a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c and d i s t i n c t i v e h u m a n b e h a v i o r is w h a t H a n n a h A r e n d t c a l l e d

" a c t i o n . " ( A r e n d t , The H u m a n Condition, p p . 155 ff.) A c t i o n is t h e c r e a t i o n o f a h u m a n w o r l d by c o n v e r s a t i o n a b o u t t h e h u - m a n g o o d , engaged in by a p u b l i c c o m m u n i t y . It is t h e l e g i t í m a t e

" p u b l i c " t h a t has e x p a n d e d d o w n t h r o u g h t h e c e n t u r i e s . T h e p u b l i c n o w e m b r a c e s all m e m b e r s o f a c o m m u n i t y , n o t j u s t t h e r i c h , t h e n o b l e , m a l e s , o r a p a r t i c u l a r r a c e . I t is t h e p u b l i c w h i c h d e t e r m i n e s its o w n c o r p o r a t e life. T h u s t h e r o l e o f n e w p r o s p e c t / t h r e a t s f o r life m u s t b e s u b m i t t e d t o t h e f o r u m o f p u b l i c d e b a t e a n d d e c i s i ó n . T h i s p u b l i c f o r u m m a k e s i m p e r a t i v e t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n , f o r e x a m p l e , o f e d u c a t i o n a l p r o g r a m s s o t h a t t h e p u b l i c m a y i n d e e d by i n f o r m e d a n d give c o n s e n t t o p r a c - t i c e s t h a t a f f e c t it. A l l , in s o far as p o s s i b l e , a r e t o be s u b j e c t s o f p o l i c i e s a n d p r o c e d u r e s a f f e c t i n g t h e m , n o t o b j e c t s o f s u c h . T o be c r e a t e d in t h e image o f G o d is t o a f f i r m t h a t all p e o p l e - a l l h u m a n c r e a t u r e s - a r e i n t e n d e d m e m b e r s o f t h e b o d y p o l i t i c , agents o f t h e i r o w n and o t h e r f u t u r e s n o m a t t e r h o w e s o t e r i c t h e k n o w l e d g e .

T h e h u m a n as a social self is always a political self, dealing w i t h t h e c o n t e n t o f w h a t life is t o be and h o w life is t o be shaped, t r e a t - ing issues b o t h o f d e f i n i t i o n and o f p o w e r . It is t h i s public w h i c h b e a r s b o t h t h e p o w e r a n d t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o d e t e r m i n e its o w n life. O n e c o n s e q u e n c e is t h a t d e c i s i ó n m a k i n g a b o u t t h e h u - m a n a n d w h a t affects t h e h u m a n c a n n o t e t h i c a l l y be left t o an élite, w h e t h e r scientists o r ethicists, b u t is t o be l o d g e d w i t h t h e e n t i r e b o d y politic. T h e t r a j e c t o r y o f a p p r o p r i a t e decisión m a k e r s w h e n i t c o m e s t o h u m a n g e r m line m a n i p u l a t i o n , f o r e x a m p l e , is t h e u n i v e r s a l h u m a n c o m m u n i t y . A c c o r d i n g t o t h i s u n d e r - s t a n d i n g , e f f i c i e n c y as a v i r t u e gives w a y t o t h e o b l i g a t i o n o f c o n s e n s u s f o r m a t i o n .

F o u r t h , t o be c r e a t e d in t h e image o f G o d is t o a c k n o w l e d g e t h e b r o k e n n e s s o f t h a t image. H u m a n s a r e , in t h e f i r s t i n s t a n c e , f i - nite, living u n d e r t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f l i m i t a t i o n a n d d e a t h . B u t t h a t is n o b r o k e n n e s s . B r o k e n n e s s is t h e s e l f - i n d u c e w o u n d in t h e h u m a n species. It is t h e p e r s i s t e n t p r e t e n s i ó n o f t h e self i n d i v i - dually and c o l e c t i v e l y t o a s s e r t m o r e t h a n i t k n o w s , c l a i m i n g , f o r e x a m p l e , u n i v e r s a l p e r s p e c t i v e s f o r o n e ' s o w n local a n d p a r o - chial v i e w p o i n t . It is also t h e h u m a n i n c l i n a t i o n t o use w h a t falls i n t o its hands f o r t r i v i a l a n d d e s t r u c t i v e p u r p o s e s . In brief, t h e h u m a n is o n e w h o s e c o n d i t i o n is d i s t o r t e d as t o p u r p o s e , w i l l and a f f e c t i o n s . T h e h u m a n is o n e w h o d i s t o r t s t h e lives o f o t h - ers, as w e l l as n a t u r e . W h y t h i s e m p h a s i s h e r e u n d e r " I m a g e o f G o d ? " . Because o n e k n o w s o n e ' s b r o k e n n e s s w h e n o n e c o m - pares o n e ' s self w i t h t h e image o f G o d , w h o s e p o w e r , w i s d o m and g o o d n e s s h u m a n s a r e called t o r e f l e c t . A l s o , t o a c k n o w l e d g e o n e ' s o w n a n d o t h e r s ' b r o k e n n e s s is t o i n t r o d u c e a h e r m e n e u - t i c o f s k e p t i c i s m a b o u t all m o r a l claims, i n c l u d i n g o n e ' s o w n . A f - f i r m a t i v e l y , i t a c k n o w l e d g e s t h e h u m a n as a v a l u i n g / d i s v a l u i n g

being, w h o s e image is c r u c i a l l y Jesús o f N a z a r e t h , f u l l y h u m a n , | 75 fully G o d .

A s t r o n g , b u t again n o t e x c l u s i v e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e h u m a n t h a t reflects t h e image o f G o d , c o r r e i a t e s w i t h b r o k e n n e s s . It is f o r - giveness. Forgiveness is t h e p o w e r o f r e s t o r i n g b r o k e n r e l a t i o n - ships, o f b e g i n n i n g again, o f b e i n g o p e n , n o evasive, a b o u t e r r o r s and w r o n g d o i n g . F o r g i v e n e s s dismisses w h a t has b e e n h u r t f u l , w h e t h e r i n t e n d e r o r n o t , and releases t h e f o r g i v e n and t h e f o r - g i v e r f r o m t h e w e b o f t h e i r d e s t r u c t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p s . It u n i t e s t h e m c o n s t r u c t i v e l y , b o t h p e r s o n a l l y a n d c o r p o r a t e l y . F o r g i v e - ness d o e s n o t m a k e " t h i n g s " r i g h t . It makes p e r s o n s able t o live in m u t u a l i t y d e s p i t t h i n g s t h e y have d o n e a n d w i l l d o t o each o t h e r . T h e a s s u m p t i o n o f forgiveness is t h a t humanness r e q u i r e s it f o r p e r s o n a l f u l f i l l m e n t a n d f o r c o r p o r a t e e n d e a v o r s . P r o t e s t a n t s assert t h a t t o f o r g i v e is i n d e e d d i v i n e a n d t h e r e f o r e a h u m a n p o s - sibility a n d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y .

Finally, t h e image o f G o d f o r P r o t e s t a n C h r i s t i a n s is o n e t h a t e m - bodies a c t i v i t y . H u m a n s a r e t o image G o d ' s a c t i v i t y . T h e y d o so by l o v i n g n e i g h b o r s and c a r i n g f o r n a t u r e . T h e y d o so by s t r u g - gling f o r j u s t i c e . T h e y d o by o b e d i e n t a c t i v i t y in al! r e a l m s o f life.

This active p e r s p e c t i v e is in c o n t r a s t t o t h o s e f o r w h o m St. T h o - mas A q u i n a s a r t i c u l a t e d a d i f f e r e n t s t a n d , n a m e l y , " [ O u r ] ultí- m a t e f e l i c i t y consists o n í y in t h e c o n t e m p l a t i o n o f G o d . " T o be a P r o t e s t a n t C h r i s t i a n is t o be, individually and w i t h o t h e r s , an ac- t i v e agent. It means t o be a s t e w a r d o f G o d ' s c r e a t i o n .

A s e c o n d r o o t m e t a p h o r t h a t has c o n s e q u e n c e s f o r t h e H u m a n G e n o m e P r o j e c t is t h a t o f t h e h u m a n as t h e S t e w a r d o f t h e C r e - a t i o n . In G é n e s i s t h e w o r l d is called g o o d and h u m a n s a r e called t o t e n d t h e g a r d e n o f life.

T h e P r o t e s t a n t shaping o f h u m a n n e s s a n d t h e w o r l d has b e e n d i - v e r s e . P r o t e s t a n t i s m as a t e r m p o i n t s t o a c l u s t e r o f r e f o r m i n g m o v e m e n t s t h a t r u n o n parallel t r a c k s in t h e 16th c e n t u r y a n d d i - v e r g e increasingly t h e r e a f t e r . B u t o n e e l e m e n t o f t h e P r o t e s t a n t u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e h u m a n p o i n t e d t o by t h e s o c i o l o g i s t M a x W e b e r is t h e desacralizing o f n a t u r e . Because G o d c r e a t e s and t r a s c e n d s t h e c r e a t i o n , c r e a t i o n , itself has n o s a c r e d p r e c i t s . T h i s means t h a t n o a r e n a o f life, h u m a n n a t u r e o r o t h e r w i s e , is o u t o f b o u n d s , e x e m p t in p r i n c i p i e f r o m i n v e s t i g a r o n a n d m a n i p u l a - r o n . T h e h u m a n c u r i o s i t y t o k n o w a n d t h e h u m a n d e s i r e t o apply k n o w l e d g e have b e e n l e g i t i m a t e d by a religious p e r s p e c t i v e t h a t a f f i r m e d t h e h u m a n as an a c t i v e a g e n t w h o is called b o t h t o u n d e r s t a n d and t o r e s h a p e t h e w o r l d . I n d e e d , such h i s t o r i a n s o f ideas as P r o f e s s o r Lynn W h i t e have a r g u e d t h a t P r o t e s t a n t i s m is t o be b l a m e d f o r t h e r a p e o f n a t u r e , elevating t h e h u m a n t o a status so f a r a b o v e t h e r e s t o f n a t u r e t h a t i t o v e r w h e l m e d t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f t h e h u m a n as p a r t o f n a t u r e . L i m i t e d t r a s c e n d e n c e o f t h e h u m a n o v e r n a t u r e w a s e x p a n d e d t o a b s o l u t e t r a n s c e n -

| 76 d e n c e . T h e p h r a s e d e s c r i b i n g h u m a n s as " U n d e r G o d , o v e r na- t u r e " m a d e f o r c o n s i d e r a b l e mischief.

P r o f e s s o r W h i t e ' s p o i n t m a y be w e l l t a k e n w i t h o u t P r o t e s t a n t - ism's being u n d e r s t o o d as t h e solé p e r p e t r a t o r o f t h e misuse o f n a t u r e and w h i l e r e c o g n i z i n g t h a t t h e r e w e r e c o u n t e r f o r c e s in t h e t r a d i t i o n as w e l l . B u t t h e S t e w a r d o f C r e a t i o n as a m e t a p h o r f o r h u m a n r e s p o n s i b l l i t y f o r t h e p l a n e t e a r t h and f o r w h e r e v e r o u r p o w e r t a k e s us r e m a i n s suggestive w h e n c o n s l d e r i n g t h e H u - m a n G e n o m e P r o j e c t . I w l l l b r i e f l y assert s o m e I m p l i c a t i o n s aris- Ing f r o m t h e m e t a p h o r .

First, t h e c r e a t i o n is n o t o u r o w n . It is G o d ' s . W e h o l d it in t r u s t f o r f u t u r e g e n e r a t i o n s a n d f o r all w h o a r e c u r r e n t l y r e s i d e n t s . W e a r e t o r e s p e c t i t and t o c a r e f o r it. H u m a n s a r e c a r i n g c r e a - t u r e s .

S e c o n d , t o c a r e f o r a n y t h i n g involves u n d e r s t a n d i n g it. F o r s t e w - a r d s , t o u n d e r s t a n d b e c o m e s n o t j u s t a f u n c t i o n o f c u r i o s i t y b u t a m o r a l c l a i m . T o u n d e r s t a n d o u r g e n e t i c c o m p o s i t i o n is c o n s o n a n t w i t h t h e s t e w a r d s h i p o f t h e c r e a t i o n . In p r i n c i p i e t h e r e is n o r e a s o n n o t t o s e e k t o u n d e r s t a n d . In fact, q u i t e t h e o p p o - site is t h e case. J o h n U p d i k e , t h e A m e r i c a n novelist, w r o t e , " M y theory was that G o d knows everyth/ng a n d cannot be shocked. A n d only truth is useful." T h e a p p r o p r i a t e a t t i t u d e f o r s t e w a r d s is res- p e c t a n d even a w e f o r w h a t has been " r e c e i v e d , " and f o r using t h a t w e k n o w f o r c a r i n g p u r p o s e s . A w e a n d r e s p e c t f o r m t h e ap- p r o p r i a t e c o n t e x t f o r c u r i o s i t y and i n v e s t i g a t i o n .

A t h i r d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f s t e w a r d s h i s is m a n i p u l a t i o n . M a n i p u l a t i o n means literally p u t t i n g o n e ' s hand i n t o t h e m i x , t r a n s f o r m i n g it.

T h e s t e w a r d cares f o r t h a t w h i c h is t h e o w n e r ' s . T o d o so means being engaged w i t h p r o c e s s e s , s t r u c t u r e s a n d p r o d u c t s . It means a l t e r i n g w h a t is, s o t h a t t h e r e m a y b e an i m p r o v e m e n t in t h e p r o d u c t o r an i n c r e a s e in t h e p r o d u c t i o n o r a c h a n g e in t h e s t r u c t u r e . It m e a n s n o t playing G o d , b u t being engaged for and with G o d . T h a t is, o f c o u r s e , a p r e s u m p t u o s claim and o n e sub- j e c t t o abuse.

T h e issue o f m a n i p u l a t i o n is o n e w h i c h r e f e r s t o t h e use o f ap- p r o p r i a t e t e c h n o l o g y t o a c h i e v e s t a t e d p u r p o s e s . B u t f o r t h e s t e w a r d o f c r e a t i o n t h e q u e s t i o n is n o t m a n i p u l a t i o n o r n o t , b u t w h a t k i n d o f m a n i p u l a t i o n s and f o r w h a t p u r p o s e s . W h e n it c o m e s t o genetic e n g i n e e r i n g , c a u t i o u s u n d e r w r i t i n g o f t h e r a p e u t i c i n t e r - v e n t i o n s (gene t h e r a p y ) by all religious c o m m u n i t i e s is a reflec- t i o n o f t h e p o s i t i v e stance t o w a r d m a n i p u l a t i o n . O n t h e o t h e r hand, t h e d e t e r m i n a r o n t o r e j e c t h u m a n g e r m line i n t e r v e n t i o n s m a y be u n d e r s t o o d also as a p r u d e n t j u d g e m e n t , n o t a p r i n c i p l e d o n e f o r t h e s t e w a r d . T h e issue as t o w h e r e t o d r a w t h e line in t e r m s o f such p o s s i b l e m a n i p u l a t i o n is a s l i p p e r y s l o p e i n d e e d , b u t it is p e r h a p s a p p r o a c h e d m o s t p r o d u c t i v e l y o n a case by case basis r a t h e r t h a n b y a g e n e r a l p r i n c i p i e r e p u d i a t i o n . F o r t h e

s t e w a r d , t h e b u r d e n o f p r o o f o f p o s i t i v e c o n s e q u e n c e s f o r such a | 77 risky v e n t u r e m u s t be o n t h e i n n o v a t o r w h o p r o p o s e s change.

T h a t p r o o f m u s t be s u b m i t t e d t o t h e j u d g e m e n t s b o t h o f scientific élites and t h e public.

F u r t h e r , the ability t o i n t e r v e n e m u s t n o t be a c c e p t e d as t h e m o r - al j u s t i f i c a t i o n for i n t e r v e n l n g . T h a t t e c h n o l o g l c a l m e n t a l l t y is p o w - e r f u l in t h e w o r l d , t a k i n g o n its o w n f o r c é . B o n h o e f f e r w r o t e ,

" T e c h n o l o g y ¡s t h e p o w e r w l t h w h l c h t h e e a r t h g r l p s m a n a n d subdues h i m " . In such a s t a t e h u m a n s d o n o t r u l e , t h e y a r e r u l e d , sacrificing f r e e d o m as c h o l e e a n d as r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . T h e t e c h n o - loglcal i m p e r a t i v e o v e r r i d e s o t h e r i n j u c t l o n s .

F o r e x a m p l e , t h e negative e v i d e n c e o f eugenic p r a c t i c e w e i g h t s t h e scales heavily in f a v o r o f r e s t r a i n t and e v e n refusal w h e n i t c o m e s t o h u m a n g e r m line m a n i p u l a t i o n . o v e r a l l , t h e r e f o r e , w h a t D r . M a x i n e F. Singer, P r e s i d e n t o f t h e C a r n e g i e I n s t i t u t i o n o f W a s h i n g t o n , C . C . , has called o u r " n o v e l c o m p e t e n c e : t h e h e r i t a - ble a l t e r a t i o n o f cells a n d w h o l e organisms... a p r o c e d u r e qualita- t i v e l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m w h a t w a s p r e v i o u s l y p o s s i b l e " , argües f o r p r o c e e d i n g o n l y u n d e r t h e m o s t c a r e f u l c o n t r o l s . Because i t is a novel c o m p e t e n c e and because i t is a q u a l i t a t i v e d i f f e r e n c e f r o m p r e v i o u s p r a c t i c e , a s t e w a r d s h i p o f c r e a t i o n in t h i s área leads t o a c o n s e r v i n g e t h i c a n d an e t h i c o f r e s t r a i n t w h i c h t a k e s i t n o ac- c o u n t t h e s a n c t i t y o f t h e species, n o t j u s t o f t h e individual self.

Still, t h e issue is n o t , in p r i n c i p i e , c l o s e d f o r p u b l i c d e b a t e and d e - c i s i ó n . Such is t h e d i z z y i n g h e i g h t s o f h u m a n f r e e d o m t h a t n o such q u e s t i o n can b e c l o s e d . W h a t is i m p o r t a n t is t h a t s u c h q u e s t i o n s be " v e r y o p e n " , n o t r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e e s o t e r i c v o c a b u - laries a n d d e c i s i ó n m a k i n g b y t h e i n i t i a t e d f e w .

Finally, a s t e w a r d o f t h e c r e a t i o n u n d e r s t a n d s t h a t his o r h e r p o - sition is o n e n o t o f a r r o g a n c e b u t o f h u m i l i t y [ m o d e s t y ] . W h e n i t c o m e s t o b i o l o g y a n d t h e H u m a n G e n o m e P r o j e c t in p a r t i c u l a r t h a t h u m i l i t y has a t least t w o s o u r c e s . O n e d e r i v e s f r o m t h e dis- cipline itself. It is t h e r e c o g n i t i o n o f h o w l i t t l e w e k n o w . L e w i s T h o m a s , physician a n d essayist, has w r i t t e n :

The only solid piece o f scientific truth about which I feel totally con- fident is that we are profoundly ignorant about nature. Indeed, I regard this as the major discovery o f the past one hundred years o f biology. (Thomas, p. 73).

T h e r e is so m u c h y e t t o k n o w t h a t o u r c u r r e n t k n o w l e d g e is radi- cally r e l a t i v i z e d . A s e c o n d o u t e o m e o f h u m i l i t y is t h e r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n r e a l m s o f k n o w i n g - e v e n w h e n c o n - f r o n t e d by t h e same data. O n e r e a l m o f k n o w i n g l o o k s at o u r c u r - r e n t biological k n o w l e d g e a n d sees p r o b l e m s t o b e s o l v e d . A sec- o n d l o o k s a t t h e living w o r l d a n d a f f i r m s , " N o t h i n g in the living world remains mysterious. W e do not yet understand all we see about us, but we are reassured that it is all understandable, all describable in terms o f chemistry - o f molecular structure a n d the interacüon o f mole-

78 cu/e." O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h i s k n o w l e d g e , as w a s a s s e r t e d e a r l i e r , raises t h e q u e s t i o n , " W h a t is t h e h u m a n ? " O r b e t t e r , " W h o is t h e h u m a n ? " A n t h e c a t e g o r y o f m y s t e r y is i n t r o d u c e d by scientist and o t h e r w h o see in t h e m a t e r i a l b e f o r e t h e m w h a t t h e y cali b e a u t i f u l , a w e s o m e , and h u m b l i n g .

If a p r o t e s t a n t m a y q u o t e a Jesuit, and a Jesuit p o e t a t t h a t , as p a r t o f p r o t e s t a n t p r e s e n t a t i o n , t h e n i t is t o G e r a l d M a n l y H o p k i n s t h a t I w o u l d t u r n . In a l e t t e r t o his f r i e n d R o b e r t Bridges w h o had a p p a r e n t l y w r i t t e n h i m a b o u t s o m e t h i n g b e i n g a " m i s t e r y " , H o p k i n s w r o t e : "You do n o t m e a n by mystery w h a t a Catholic does.

You m e a n an interesting uncertainty. But a Catholic by mystery means a n d incomprehensible certainty". ( D e b o r a h D o u g l a s , p. 10.) T o t h a t t h i s C a t h o l i c P r o t e s t a n t says " A m e n " .

F o r P r o t e s t a n t s a n d C a t h o l i c s t h i s i n c o m p r e h e n s i b l e c e r t a i n t y is n o t a passive o b j e c t , t o b e e x p l o r e d a n d e x p l a i n e d w i t h o u t r e - m a i n d e r . It is an a c t i v e f o r c é b e a r i n g d o w n u p o n us in v a r i o u s shapes a n d f o r m s , c o m i n g t o us, calling t o us, i n q u i r i n g o f us as t o w h o w e a r e , e v e n as i t p r o v o k e s t h e r e s p o n s e o f a j o u r n e y i n t o an u n d e r s t a n d i n g , w i t h o u t d e f i n i t e c o m p r e h e n s i o n , o f its n a t u r e . A m y s t e r y always has s u r p l u s o f m e a n i n g s . W e live w i t h a m y s t e r y , like Jacob, w r e s t l i n g w i t h it, s t r u g g l i n g w i t h t h e q u e s - t i o n s m y s t e r y p u t s t o us a n d living i n t o w h a t a n s w e r s w e a r e g i v e n . F o r m y s t e r y , an a n s w e r is p r e c e d e d and f o l l o w e d b y q u e s - t i o n s , f o r m i n g a d y n a m i c r e l a t i o n s h i p . F r o m t h e a n s w e r s w e give a n d a r e g i v e n f l o w o u r f u n d a m e n t a l s e l f - u n d e r s t a n d i n g s . T o be engaged by m y s t e r y is t o be v u l n e r a b l e t o p e r s o n a l a n d social t r a n s f o r m a r o n .

G a b r i e l M a r c e l , t h e F r e n c h p h i l o s o p h e r , has m a d e a useful dis- t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e c a t e g o r i e s o f p r o b l e m a n d m y s t e r y . H e w r i t e s :

A problem is something which I meet, which I f i n d complete before m e , b u t which I can therefore lay siege to a n d reduce. But a mys- tery is something in which I a m myself involved... A genuine prob- lem is subject to an appropriate technique by the exercise o f which it is defeated: whereas a mystery, by defmition, transcends every conceivable technique. It is, no doubt, always possible... to degrade a mystery so as to t u r n it into a p r o b l e m . But this is a f u n d a - mentally vicious proceeding... ( R o b e r t M c A f e e B r o w n , p. 2 6 2 ) .

So u n d e r s t o o d , l o v e is a m y s t e r y , h o p e is a m y s t e r y ; w e a r e m y s - t e r i e s t o o u r s e l v e s . W e a r e n o t m y s t e r i e s t h a t can be " s o l v e d " . W e a r e m y s t e r i e s in w h i c h w e live and m o v e a n d have o u r being.

Religión a n d science e n c o u n t e r t h e same realities, s e p á r a t e in f o - cusing a t t e n t i o n o n p a r t i c u l a r p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f w h a t " i s " , a n d i n - s t r u c t each o t h e r as t h e y m e e t in t h e t r a n s a c t i o n o f m y s t e r y and p r o b l e m . P r o t e s t a n t s claim o n l y t o cali f o r a c o n t e x t o f u n d e r - s t a n d i n g m o r e inclusive t h a n " p r o b l e m " and n o t as o b s c u r a n t i s t

as an u n e x p l o r e d m y s t e r y , t h e r e b y o p e n i n g t h e w a y t o t r a n s f o r - 1 7 9 m a t i o n o f w h a t i t m e a n s f o r us t o be h u m a n .

Perhaps t h e m o s t a w e s o m e m y s t e r y t h a t P r o t e s t a n t s p r o c l a i m f o r h u m a n s is t h e r e a l i t y t h a t w e a r e c o - c r e a t o r s w i t h t h e u l t i m a t e P o w e r in a d y n a m i c c o s m o s . O u r calling as s t e w a r d s is n o t t o fit i n t o an assigned s l o t in a passive w o r l d , b u t t o share w i t h o t h e r s and w i t h t h e p o w e r w e P r o t e s t a n t s cali G o d in c o n t i n u i n g t h e d e v e l o p m e n t a n d h o p e f u l l y t h e m a t u r a t i o n o f t h e w o r l d .

A c o n c l u d i n g w o r d is p e r h a p s in o r d e r b e f o r e s u m m a r i z i n g . F o r s o m e o f us P r o t e s t a n t s t h e w a y t o t h i n k a b o u t t h e h u m a n is t o t h i n k f r o m t h e f u t u r e b a c k w a r d . T h e h u m a n t o w a r d w h i c h w e live is t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l , t h e p r o m i s e d e n d , w h e r e h u m a n s live w i t h each o t h e r an G o d in f r e e d o m and m u t u a l i t y , w h e r e t h e r e is n o w e e p i n g o r c r y i n g o r d e a t h , n e i t h e r r e j e c t i o n ñ o r l o n e l i n e s s , b u t all d w e l l in d y n a m i c h a r m o n y , j u s t i c e , a n d t r a n q u i l i t y w i t h t h e i r n e i g h b o r s a n d w i t h n a t u r e . T h a t m y s t e r y , t h a t p r o m i s e d f u - t u r e has r e f e r e n c e f o r life a n d f o r life b e y o n d d e a t h . O u r life s h u d d e r s o n t h e p r e s e n c e o f d e a t h . B u t i t is t h e f o r m e r w h i c h I shall a d d r e s s .

W e a r e , a c c o r d i n g t o t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e f r o m t h e e n d o f h i s t o r y , c u r r e n t l y p r o t o - h u m a n , n o t y e t fully h u m a n , o n t h e w a y t o o u r h u m a n i t y . W e a r e p i l g r i m s e x p l o r i n g e m e r g i n g w o r l d s . W e r e - side in t h e t e n s i ó n b e t w e e n w h a t w e shall b e and w h o w e a r e n o w . W e m a k e d e c i s i o n s in t h e light o f w h a t w e a r e called t o be, b u t also u n d e r t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f w h a t has b e e n . T h u s , t h i s f u t u r e is n o t w i t h o u t c o n t e n t . It is t h e f u l l e s t e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e life lived b y Jesús o f N a z a r e t h in his dealing w i t h his c o n t e m p o r a - ries. Its q u a l i t i e s a r e l o v e o f G o d a n d n e i g h b o r a n d d o i n g j u s t l y . Its specific c o n t o u r s w e a r e t o u n f o l d , b u t n o t w i t h o u t r e f e r e n c e t o t h e i m a g e o f G o d w i t h us in Jesús o f N a z a r e t h a n d m a d e p o s - sible t o d a y a n d t o m o r r o w by t h e same S p i r i t o f G o d w h i c h a n i - m a t e d Jesús a n d t h e c o m m u n i t y c e n t e r e d a r o u n d a n d w i t h h i m . Precisely in t h e m i d s t o f t h e t e n s i ó n b e t w e e n past a n d f u t u r e w e m a k e o u r d e c i s i o n s a b o u t w h o w e a r e and w h o w e a r e t o b e , a n d t h e n a b o u t w h a t w e shall d o . O u r h a b i t a t i o n is, w e P r o t e s - t a n t C h r i s t i a n s a f f i r m , t h e f u t u r e as p o w e r f u l l y as t h e past a n d t h e p r e s e n t . T h e r e f o r e t h e r e is an o p e n m o r p h o l o g y o f t h e h u - m a n . W e u n d e r s t a n d o u r s e l v e s a n d all h u m a n as " n o t k n o w i n g w h a t w e shall b e , " b u t c o n f i d e n t in t h e p o w e r o f t h e o n e called C r e a t o r , R e d e e m e r , a n d R u l e r . O u r d e c i s i o n s a r e l a c e d w i t h a m b i g u i t y . T h e y a r e o f t e n h a r m f u l in t h e i r c o n s e q u e n c e s , d i l u t e d in t h e i r p o w e r by o u r l i m i t e d i n t e r e s t s . B u t t h e P r o t e s t a n t affir- m a t i o n o f g r a c e is t h a t , f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e w a y o f h u m a n s lies n o t in t h e m s e l v e s , b u t in an U l t i m a t e P o w e r w h o s e w i l l is g o o d n e s s f o r t h e w h o l e c r e a t i o n .

In c o n c l u s i ó n , t h e n a q u o t a t i o n f r o m W . H . A u d e n . H i s o b s e r v a - r o n r e f l e c t s t h e m o d e r n a n d , I believe, t h e p o s t - m o d e r n w o r l d ' s

80 g r a s p i n g o f t h e n e t t l e o f a m b i g u i t y , r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , a n d a n x i e t y . H e w r i t e s :

"The Distresses o f choice are our chance o f being blessed. ( F o r t h e T i m e B e i n g ) . "

T h a t w e have a c h a n c e a t all is g r o u n d s f o r g r a t i t u d e , h o p e , and c o u r a g e .

S u m m a r y : I have c o n t e n d e d t h a t w e a r e residents o f an e m e r g i n g p o s t - m o d e r n w o r l d , o n e t h a t c o n c e d e s s o m e t i m e s grudgingly and s o m e t i m e s gladly, t h e m ú l t i p l e ways o f k n o w i n g and being in t h e w o r l d . T h e fact t h a t t h i s d i v e r s e g r o u p is g a t h e r e d h e r e is t e s t i - m o n y t o t h a t n e w e r a . !t is, in fact, i r o n i c t h a t t h e v e r y successes o f t h e so called scientific w o r l d v i e w have elicited f r o m w i t h i n and f r o m w i t h o u t t h e scientific c o m m u n i t y t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e h u m a n . In i l u s t r a t i n g o n e w a y o f t h i n k i n g a b o u t t h e h u m a n I have d r a w n f r o m a p a r t i c u l a r h i s t ó r i c a ! t r a d i t i o n , o n e called P r o t e s t a n t C h r i s - t i a n , w i t h o u t c l a i m i n g e x c l u s i v e r i g h t s by t h a t t r a d i t i o n , a n d w i t h - o u t p r e s u m i n g t o r e p r e s e n t t h e P r o t e s t a n t p e r s p e c t i v e , an o x y - m o r o n if e v e r t h e r e w a s o n e . T h e s u m o f t h i s p r e s e n t a t i o n is p e r h a p s t h a t t h e h u m a n is a c o m p l e x n o t a s i m p l e r e a l i t y , o n e w i t h m a n y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . A t v a r i o u s t i m e s v a r i o u s c h a r a c t e r i s - tics have b e e n e l e v a t e d as " t h e h u m a n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , " e.g., r e a - s o n , valuing, c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f its o w n dying. D i f f e r e n t P r o t e s t a n t p e r s p e c t i v e s o n t h e h u m a n have b e e n a d v a n c e d - t h e self as p i l - g r i m , t h e self as c i t i z e n , e t c . B u t w h a t seems a p p a r e n t is t h a t t h e h u m a n self is a c l u s t e r o f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s all o f w h i c h m u s t be af- f i r m e d , p r o t e c t e d a n d a d v a n c e . S o m e o f t h e s e w e r e a s s e r t e d w i t h t h e assistance o f t w o r o o t m e t a p h o r s .

T w o r o o t m e t a p h o r s given p r o m i n e n c e in P r o t e s t a n t C h r i s t i a n i t y a n d n u a n c e d d i f f e r e n t l y because o f t h a t s e t t i n g , have b e e n u s e d . O n e is t h e h u m a n as c r e a t e d in t h e Image o f G o d . T h e o t h e r is t h e h u m a n as t h e S t e w a r d o f C r e a t i o n .

U n d e r t h e h u m a n as c r e a t e d in t h e image o f G o d t h e f o l l o w i n g w e r e a f f i r m e d as essential f o r h u m a n n e s s : I ) T h e i n d i v i d u a l i t y o f each h u m a n b e i n g a n d t h e d i g n i t y o f t h e self and t h e species; 2) f r e e d o m as a capacity t o c h o o s e a m o n g o p t i o n s a n d t o t a k e r e s - p o n s i b i l i t y f o r o n e s e l f a n d G o d ' s w o r l d ; 3) t h e sociality o f t h e h u - m a n , r e s u l t i n g in s h a r e d d e c i s i ó n f o r o n e s e l f and G o d ' s w o r l d ; 3) t h e s o c i a l i t y o f t h e h u m a n , r e s u l t i n g in s h a r e d d e c i s i ó n m a k i n g a n d w i d e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f p o w e r ; 4 ) t h e b r o k e n n e s s o f t h e self in t e r m s o f s e p a r a t i o n f r o m its s o u r c e o f being, its o w n f r e e d o m , a n d its n e i g h b o r s a n d t h e r e f o r e a h e r m e n e u t i c o f s k e p t i c i s m a b o u t m o r a l claims; 5) a n d t h e h u m a n as a c t i v e l y engaged in t h e w o r l d a n d w i t h n e i g h b o r s .

U s i n g S t e w a r d o f t h e C r e a t i o n as a h e u r i s t i c device, I have desig- n a t e d t h e s e e l e m e n t s o f h u m a n n e s s : I ) u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e e r e -

a t i o n as n o t o u r o w n , b u t as having its s o u r c e and being in an U l - 181 t i m a t e P o w e r , w i t h o u r cali b e i n g t o c a r e f o r t h e c r e a t i o n ; 2 ) t o

c a r e f o r r e q u i r e s u n d e r s t a n d i g ; 3) m a n i p u l a t i o n is an o b l i g a t i o n , as is r e s t r a i n t , in dealing w i t h t h e c r e a t e d c o s m o s ; and 4 ) t h e v i r - t u e o f h u m i l i t y has c o n s e q u e n c e s t h a t s i m u l t a n e o u s l y p r o p e l b o t h science a n d t e c h n o l o g y w h i l e d e - i m p e r i a l i z i n g t h e m as w a y s o f being h u m a n .

In c o n c l u s i ó n , I a f f i r m t h e p r o t o - h u m a n n a t u r e o f t h e h u m a n , a n d r e a s s e r t t h e d y n a m i c a n d p i l g r i m a g e q u a l i t y o f life, i n d i v i d u a l l y and c o r p o r a t e l y . O u r c o n f i d e n c e is finally n o t in o u r s e l v e s , b u t in O n e w h o s e p o w e r is p r o p o r t i o n a t e t o t h e p u r p o s e s o f f r u i t i o n f o r life as w e r e c e i v e it, d i s c o v e r it, c o n s t r u c t , a n d r e c o n s t r u c t it.

182

R E F E R E N C E S

A r e n d t , H a n n a h . The Human Condition. T h e University of Chicago Press, 1958.

B o n h o e f f e r , D i e t r i c h . Creation and Fall. N e w Y o r k : T h e McMillan Company, 1967.

G u s t a f s o n , J a m e s M. Ethics from a Theocentric Perspectíve: Theology and Ethics. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1981.

H a r t t , Julián. A Christian Critique of American Culture. N e w York: Harper and Row, 1967.

Cited by Robert McAfee B r o w n f r o m 6e;ng an Having, "Puzzles, Pro- blems, and Mysteries", Christianity and Crisis, August 1, 1988, p. 262.

See Also Gabriel Marcel, Homo Viator, Chicago: Henry Regnery C o m - pany, 1951, and the review by Jeremy Bernstein of W a l t e r Moore's Schrodinger: Life and Thought ( C a m b r i d g e ) , in The N e w Yorker, N o v e m b e r 5, 1990. M o o r e quotes this distinguished scientist in this fashion: [Schrodinger sid], " T h e r e is one thing the Greeks knew and that w e have forgotten...'Modesty!"' l[Bernstein] t h i n k that w h a t he meant by this sibylline remark... is that science is necessary but n o t sufficient, in estabiishing one's view of the w o r l d . "

S i n g e r , M a x i n e R. " T h e N e w Biology." A n unpublished paper present- ed at t h e Bicentennial Symposium, Presbyterian C h u r c h ( U S A ) , Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., 1989.

T h o m a s , L e w i s . The Snail and the Medusa. N e w Y o r k : The Viking Press, 1979.

W a l l , J a m e s . The Chr/st/on Century, June I, 1988.

D o u g l a s , D e b o r a h . "Exploring the Cosmos," unpublished manuscript.

In document Human Genome Project: Ethics (página 153-185)