With the exception of cold areas in the extreme north and south, they spread to all parts of the continent. The problem of the black historian is not subjectivity, which would be entirely legitimate, but the uncertainty of his position.
TALES OF THE PAST
MEMORIES OF AFRICA
Sometimes a portrait of the slave author is added to demonstrate that he is not really different from an average free American6. 9 "In the dead of night, the village would be surrounded by the chief's warriors.
SLAVERY AND BLACK HISTORY
Over the course of the 19th century, the image of the black slave as a child took on a new dimension. It is the most dangerous of all prejudices and it clearly affects most of Herskovits.
THE PLANTATION: IDEOLOGICAL AND LITERARY CENTRE OF AFRO -
We have seen that insistence on the African (former) slave resulted. Race' or the cultural origin of the plantation population was not of particular interest to plantation theorists.
SEARCHING FOR AN ALTERNATIVE HERO: THE EPIC MAROON
This, of course, does not detract from the literary and aesthetic value of the novels we have cited. Rumors have created a winding and labyrinthine genealogy for Poseidon, the oldest inhabitant of the Canje.
ARCHETYPES AND HISTORY
SLAVERY IN THE OLD WORLD
Prisoners, sometimes nobles and princes were part of the booty; they were enslaved but often redeemed;. Compared to the later Atlantic slave trade in the 15th century, however, the initial stages of the Portuguese slave trade were not dramatic.
INDENTURED LABOUR AND DOMESTIC SLAVERY
It is therefore not surprising that the island experienced one of the largest slave rebellions in 1768. As we shall see in the next chapter, it even seems doubtful whether the plantation economy of the "pure" or "mature" type could to flourish elsewhere than on the islands. and in island-like areas. Some of the products succeeded – notably tobacco, indigo and coffee – and brought some profits, others failed.
These would travel to one of the known ports, sign the contract and upon arrival in the colony join their employers who had paid for the passage. Around the turn of the century, the trade in indentured servants declined and came to an end around 1725. Ultimately, the governor decides that the owner must pay, but will be compensated by an extension of the servants.
SUGAR AS LIFE STYLE AND “SOCIAL DEATH”
Due to the harsh landscape and the early system of land distribution (sesmerias), these plantations were not really large and efficient enough (Greenfield 1977: 546f), but brought considerable wealth to their owners due to a lack of produce. At the end of the 18th century, there was an average of 100 slaves per plantation (Forster & and in Saint-Domingue it was considerably higher. Although these calculations seem absolutely inhumane, they became an essential part of the plantation economy.
These are concrete human examples that go beyond the abstraction of a 'pure model' and help explain some specific features of the plantation in real terms. Planters are haunted in their personal lives by the image of the size of their slaves' male organ, which becomes a symbol of power. In the opinion of the owners, the plantations, especially those of absentee owners, came very close to “isolates” of the pure model.
SPANISH AMERICA AND THE INTERNATIONALISATION OF NEW WORLD
Very soon, at the beginning of the new century, colonists began to cultivate sugar cane and produce sugar. Santo Domingo, already difficult to defend, was no longer part of the American strengths of gold transport. Damage done to a slave is defined less in relation to the slave's interest than as loss of the slave owner's property.
The administrations of the slave colonies were deeply concerned that the Saint-Domingue events were only the tip of an iceberg. The causes and circumstances behind the Cuban sugar "miracle" have been extensively described, especially in the publications of Franklin W. 81. The only comparable example is the Haitian literature of the 19th century, which of course advocates entirely different causes than the Cuban.
BETWEEN AFRICA AND AMERICA
AFRICAN IDENTITIES: ORIGINS, “NATIONS” AND LINGUISTIC CHANGE
Apart from a few recent investigations (mainly Alleyne, Boretzky and Mufwene), all major studies on creole languages since 1960 insist on the idea of a "rift" in the linguistic biography of the new slave: the former speech community disappears, the languages Africans become obsolete. and are no longer used. Knowing the different African nations, their qualities and shortcomings, was part of the professional knowledge of the planters. All these names refer to cargo ports and fortifications and include larger inland areas.
The most numerous in the French colonies were the Senegalese, who included several ethnic groups of the lower Senegal River. The power and splendor of the kingdom and the welfare of his subjects depended entirely on its maintenance, so he. Ulcumy was one of the Yoruba kingdoms, which left its mark on the secret cult language of Cuba, called Lucumí.
SOCIAL STRUCTURE AND THE ROLE OF THE AFRICAN NATIONS IN
The colony's dominant social and cultural hierarchy was simple and unequivocal; it depended on criteria that did not need much interpretation: status, i.e. one of these consisted of free coloreds, and it will be referred to later (IV. 3 and 4); the other category consisted of the Creole slaves born in the colony. We are aware that we are approaching the most controversial part of the argument regarding the African nations.
It is known that customers in the slave markets paid attention to the ethnic origin of the slaves, which they saw mainly as a linguistic link between them. 95 This fear, similar to the European prejudice of "savages", was widespread among young slaves. The foundations of the African Nation's power were based on the mystical realm of African religion and magic.
THE POWER OF THE AFRICAN GODS
Most of the effects will depend on the suggestive skills of the magician, but it can also lead to the most feared: poison99. According to Lewis, its purpose is to demonstrate, through an act of symbolic killing, the supernatural abilities of the Obeah - man. More interesting is the first, introductory part of the ceremony, because it depicts the Voodoo society as the basis of collective and communal activities.
This fact, as well as the punishments provided for the offending members of the association strongly remind the description of Moreau de Saint-Méry101. This leads us to raise once again the controversial issue of relations between Nations, cults and the use of African languages. Some terms would be used in prayer, but most people would no longer understand the meaning of the words.
CREOLE AND AFRICAN RESISTANCE
They had carefully planned their escape which mostly involved a pragmatic solution to the nature of slave conditions. However, it seems that oath ceremonies generally belonged to the religious culture of the slaves. Did this mean the extinction of African cultures and languages during the Revolutionary Wars.
This is the main epistemological argument against the idea of a "break" in the linguistic history of the African slave brought to the Americas. French Saint-Domingue was “the best colony in the world” in the sense. Mulatto living conditions and behavior were "mestizo" in more ways than one.
CREOLE CULTURES AND THEIR COUNTERPARTS
MESTIZOS, MULATTOS AND CREOLES: TERMS AND CONCEPTS
The recognition of one group's inheritance rights generally implies the loss of others, i.e. both parts of experience are necessary: without miscegenation, purity would degenerate into sterility; without the creation of "purity" the world cannot be fully perceived. In both the French and the British Caribbean, in the early 18th century the term creole changes its meaning, i.e.
The semantic narrowing of the term creole occurred mainly in the French and English languages, and is closely associated with the rise of the plantation economy in the 18th century. All these terms - Creole, Ladino, Bozal - are part of the technical vocabulary of plantation economics and administration. By the 1930s, colonial ethnography was a recognized discipline; its goal was the maintenance of the colonial population and labor force, and it advocated this native.
A PARTICULAR CASE: CREOLE LANGUAGES
This is expressed by the use of hypercorrect forms in which the Haitian-educated delight in appearing on stage. It is clear that in any language the two functions coexist and can alternate freely depending on temporary or long-term speech strategies; they are part of the social use of language. In plantation societies dependent on the constant importation of new slaves, the referential functions of language use would favor the African languages of the slaves as well as the colonial languages of the masters—a specialization that underscores the lack of social integration in the sugar-producing colonies. .
At this stage, the Pidgin and Creole languages were merely vehicular aids for most of the colony's inhabitants; they have little integration power, because the number of Creole slaves remains relatively small. The problem of the continued use of African languages during slavery has been extensively discussed. The use of African languages was gradually stopped, as the importation of new slaves stopped and the number of Creole slaves increased; The Creole language, which became the reference tool of the black community, lost most of its vehicle functions (although some of these features still exist132).
BLACK “FUNDAMENTALISM” AND THE MISGIVINGS OF THE
The whites threw as much of the burdens of the country upon them as possible. Tasks such as the forced maintenance of the roads were placed extra heavily on their shoulders. The interpretation of the Saint-Domingue Revolution by essayists and literature was considerable (cf. Hoffmann 1972, Bremer 1982, Fleischmann 1989) and initially positive.
The mulattoes of Saint-Domingue had no difficulty conforming to the civilizational ideals of the international elite. Both represent a violation of colonial rationales, which, however, should not be seen simply as the rationale of production, as postulated for example in the "pure model." They had considerable effects not only on the number of slaves surrendered, but also on their selection, because they favored the formal emancipation of mainly planters.
CONCLUSION: ETHNIC CONSCIENCE AND UNIVERSAL CREOLISATION
The black slave who arrived in the Iberian Peninsula in the mid-fifteenth century found a favorable environment. Second, it is "tropical" and therefore defies the nature of cold countries because it is not limited, organized and dominated. One of the most interesting parts of Glissant's theory are those related to the issue of the epic tale147.
1993b): "The Constitution of Alterity: Fernando Ortiz and the Beginnings of Latin American Ethnography from the Spirit of Italian Criminology". EQUIANO, Olaudah (1789): Interesting account of the life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vassa, the African. HANCOCK, Ian F. (1968): “A Survey of the Pidgins and Creoles of the World” In: Dell Hymes (ed): Pidginization and Creolization of Languages.
