Because flow can account for the positive experiences which individuals can derive from enjoyable activities, it seems reasonable to suggest that flow can be applied to gaming as its main objective is to provide gamers with positive experiences which facilitate fun and pleasure. This suggests that positive experiences of gaming will be a critical element in the gaming experience, and requires greater consideration within the academic literature.
There is some evidence to suggest that certain game characteristics influence experiences of flow in gaming (e.g., challenge, complexity, feedback) (Inal & Cagiltay, 2007). Considering the structural components of videogames presents a case for the way they can facilitate flow experiences. A large majority of games include mission objectives and comprehensive introductions which can act as clear goals for players before and during the game experience. In-game cut scenes are also a useful way of ensuring that game goals are presented clearly to the player. Feedback is provided in a number of different forms within games (although will vary depending on the particular game). For example, points or achievements are added for successful completion of objectives or missions, and these are logged for the player to access during the game. Furthermore, multi-sensory feedback is often provided through console controllers (e.g., vibration to indicate wounding of a player’s character), therefore giving the player clear feedback on their gaming performance. This stimulation can therefore enhance the sensory experience of the videogame. Balance of skill and challenge can be controlled through a player selecting a difficulty level appropriate for their capabilities. Therefore, an equal balance can be established between the player’s skills and the challenge of the game in order for flow to be facilitated. A gradual progression of new challenges should be presented for the player to master to aid the skill development at an appropriate rate. Many games are designed to provide players with appropriate learning curves on which they can successfully progress in games. This ensures that the challenge of the game is not too
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high for players’ skill levels. Deep concentration can be facilitated by a game which provides rich, detailed environments, with good automation and numerous objects to control (Sweetser & Wyeth, 2005). These features, in turn, help draw players into the game (Jones, 1998). A sense of control is usually experienced during gaming through the mastery of the console controller and functions. Lose of sense of self is facilitated through acting in ways which would not normally be undertaken in real life, or through experiencing the game in a character role. Distorted sense of time is often facilitated both through the experienced sense of heightened immersion of playing, but also through the fact that many games run on an altered time system (Jones, 1998). The presence of these components can therefore create an overall autotelic experience, characterised by players’ heightened enjoyment, and the drive to play, purely for the sense of internal reward they derive through gaming.
These characteristics of videogames result in them being ideal facilitators of creating and maintaining flow experiences. However, to date, there is little empirical evidence examining the influence of different game aspects on flow. Some studies using flow theory as a theoretical framework have examined factors such as game design (Johnson & Wiles, 2003), social interaction (Inal & Cagiltay, 2007), as well as some game characteristics (Voiskounsky, Mitina & Avetisova, 2004). Inal and Cagiltay (2007) found that game challenge was a key determinant of flow in children’s interactive social gaming experiences, and that there were noteworthy differences between girls and boys in flow experiences given that boys had higher preferences for gaming. They also found that competitive factors in gaming were a means of facilitating flow experiences within social gaming contexts.
A body of research has specifically studied online gaming and the flow experience (Voiskounsky et al., 2004; Wan & Chiou, 2006; Weibel et al., 2008). Wan & Chiou (2006) considered the engaging and interactive nature of online games and found evidence that online gameplay facilitates flow experiences. Voiskounsky et al. (2004) addressed flow experiences of MUD-players (Multi-User Dungeons or Multi-User Dimensions), and the role of flow in determining gaming behaviour. MUDs are text- only virtual environments, which incorporate online groups of gamers in adventure- based games. A particular feature which attracts gamers to these environments is the interaction between players within the gaming community (Voiskounsky et al., 2004).
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The findings from this study revealed that flow was a key determining factor of gameplay for MUD-players. These findings are interesting, and reference should be made to the possibility of the potential negative consequences of flow for gamers, (e.g., game addiction) in these cases. Some researchers have proposed the role of flow in facilitating addictive gaming behaviour (Chou & Ting, 2003). Although flow theory suggests that the experience of flow is positive for the gamer, it is possible that its social consequences could be negative. Further, aggressive individuals may derive highly positive flow experiences through violent gameplay, and this may be associated with negative behavioural consequences. This is consistent with research examining the experience of flow and deviant behaviour (Katz, 1988). Although the social consequences of such behaviour would be perceived as negative, the individual’s experience of flow could be positive. It would be interesting for future research to examine the way in which gamers’ engagement with violent content, for example, triggers equivalent flow experiences and how these might be associated with aggressive attitudes and behaviour. The role of individual differences (e.g., addictive personality, aggressive personality) in facilitating flow in gaming, and the potential consequences of this experience represents an area for further research.
In relation to further positive outcomes, flow in gaming has also been shown to be associated with greater game loyalty (Hsu & Lu, 2004; Lee & Larose, 2007), gaming intentions (Choi & Kim, 2004; Hsu & Lu, 2004), and to have positive consequences for enjoyment and affect (Klimmt, Hartmann & Frey, 2007; Smith, 2007). Hsu and Lu (2004) used flow theory as a partial explanation for the intentions of gamers to engage in online games. They used an adapted version of the Technology Acceptance Model (Davies, Bagozzi & Warchaw, 1989), including social influences and flow as predictors of attitudes and intention towards playing online games. Their findings revealed that flow could significantly predict intention to play, suggesting that gamers intend to play continuously when they feel immersed in games. Further to gaming intentions, Choi and Kim (2004) and Lee and Larose (2007) found that flow experiences were determinants of loyalty behaviour, self-regulation and habitual consumption behaviour in online gaming. This suggests that self-determined motivations for engagement in gaming may be associated with experiences of flow.
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Webster et al’s (1993) study examining playfulness in human-computer interactions showed evidence of flow experiences having positive implications for learning in software use. Based on this notion, Kiili (2005) proposed the Experiential Gaming Model to use as a framework for examining the experience of flow in computer- mediated environments. This model highlights the importance of games with unambiguous feedback, as well as goals and challenges which are matched with the player’s skill in order for the flow experience to occur, and for it to have a positive impact on learning, particularly within educational-based contexts.
Keller and Bless (2008) experimentally examined flow and mechanisms of intrinsic motivation in a computer game task. The game Tetris was manipulated across conditions of varied skill-challenge balances (i.e., equal skill and challenge; higher skill than challenge; and higher challenge than skill-level). The results suggested that a compatible skill to challenge balance (i.e., equal skill and challenge) is most effective in facilitating intrinsic motivation in gaming. This presents an account of the associations between motivations for gaming and positive flow experiences, and suggests that enjoyment of gaming is both an outcome and a motivation.
The importance of the intrinsic nature of activities in facilitating flow is clearly demonstrated by the literature. However, flow is a highly subjective experience which has personal significance to a particular individual, when engaged in a particular activity. This means that generalisations about the experience of flow for particular activities are problematic as they are highly dependent upon the individual’s experience of the activity, based on motivation and enjoyment. The experience of intrinsic interest and enjoyment can then foster an overall sense of well-being.
Two perspectives have been used to account for the way in which flow can have consequences for psychological well-being: the hedonic and the eudaimonic approaches (Waterman, Schwartz & Conti, 2008). The hedonic perspective postulates that flow can directly impact on well-being through the experience of happiness in the current situation. It conceptualises well-being as the happiness experienced through positive mood. Alternatively, the eudaimonic approach suggests that it is the indirect route of motivation to master challenging tasks which impacts on perceptions of well- being and determines life-long growth (Moneta, 2004). This provides a much broader
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approach to the study of the factors involved in promoting psychological well-being. The following section further examines the theoretical and empirical evidence of the associations between flow and psychological well-being.