The previous sections have focused on the positive influence of videogames for physical effects, such as cognitive skill development and psychological enhancements for motivation in learning. This section addresses the influence of playing videogames on affective experiences and outcomes, and considers the notion of adopting a leisure perspective as a theoretical framework for understanding the experiential aspects of gaming and their influence on potential outcomes and consequences.
Enjoyment and fun are central to gaming experiences, as is the case for other forms of media entertainment (Vorderer, Klimtt & Ritterfield, 2004). It seems reasonable therefore, that gaming will have positive experiences and effects for players. There has been little examination of gaming experiences on positive affective outcomes (e.g., enjoyment) and general well-being, although Smith (2007) found evidence that experiences of flow during gameplay (measured by self-reported skill and challenge) predicted post-gameplay enjoyment and positive affect in experimental settings.
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Some studies have examined the enjoyment of playing videogames by examining the influence of specific game aspects. These suggest that social relations among gameplayers, competition, suspense in storyline and perceived control within the game are influential to game enjoyment (Klimmt, 2003; Klimmt, Hartmann & Frey, 2007; Klimmt, Rizzo, Vorderer, Hartmann & Fischer, 2003; Klimmt, Schmid & Orthmann, 2009; Weibel, Wissmath, Habegger, Steiner & Groner, 2008). Other research has examined the influence of social factors in gaming for aspects of well- being. Longman, O’Connor and Obst (2009) identified that the social support which can be derived through playing online games is positively associated with fewer negative psychological symptoms (i.e., depression, stress and anxiety). This highlights the need to consider the wider benefits of gaming, which have received minimal empirical attention.
The findings of these studies suggest positive experiences of enjoyment have associations with positive psychological and affective outcomes. It also suggests that people play games for the positive experiences which they can provide. This implies an inherent link between experiential and motivational aspects of gaming. Examining these associations by considering gaming within the wider context of leisure and leisure theory can provide a greater understanding of their influence on gaming outcomes and consequences, and a more holistic understanding of gaming. A review of leisure theory and research comprises the following section.
2.4. Leisure
Most people engage themselves in leisure activities to experience enjoyment and freedom from everyday life (Harper, 1986). In this way, leisure is usually intrinsically motivated, as individuals participate under minimal external obligation. For the purposes of the current research, leisure is defined as an activity which is characterised by perceived freedom and intrinsic motivation (Iso-Ahola, 1980; Neulinger, 1981), which can allow for personal growth or development.
Leisure is distinct from most daily activities due to the sense of freedom and autonomy which it provides. This itself is a strong motivator for leisure engagement
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and can determine potential psychological benefits for participants. Such benefits include enhanced well-being (Caldwell & Smith, 1988; Edwards, 2006; Iso-Ahola & Mannell, 2004; Trainor, Delfabbro, Anderson & Winefield, 2010), positive mood (Hull, 1990; Pressman et al., 2009), and higher levels of self-efficacy and self-esteem (McAuley, Courneya, & Lettunich, 1991). Leisure theory posits that the underlying mechanism for these benefits is the enhancement of self-determined motivation and the individual’s belief that they have the capabilities to achieve success (Iso-Ahola, 1992). In addition, the enjoyment and positive experiences which leisure provides can enhance positive perceptions of life satisfaction and psychological well-being (Haworth, 1997; Haworth & Hill, 1992). This link is supported by a number of empirical studies and suggests that engagement in leisure has positive implications for wider psychological benefits (Bartko & Eccles, 2003; Iso-Ahola, 1997; Iwasaki & Smale, 1998; Kohn & Schooler, 1983; Sacker & Cable, 2005).
Researchers have also suggested that leisure can be a means of stress-relief (Berger, 1994; Coleman & Iso-Ahola, 1993; Iso-Ahola, 1988). Iwasaki and Mannell (2000) explain the stress-reducing properties of leisure through proposing three dimensions which can moderate stress. Firstly, leisure can be an escape strategy from adverse negative feelings. Secondly, leisure activities can enhance mood through tension reduction. Thirdly, leisure can offer opportunities of social support which can aid the stress management processes. This notion is supported by Iso-Ahola and Mannell (2004) who suggest that leisure provides opportunities for recuperation and relief of work-related stress. Similarly, research has found that involvement in active leisure can facilitate positive mood (Biddle, Fox & Boutcher, 2000), and be associated with significant improvements for overall well-being (Edwards, 2006).
The benefits of active leisure can be attributed to the physiological mechanisms (e.g., increased heart rate, cardiovascular responses) involved in undertaking such activities, and there is substantial medical evidence endorsing the importance of physical activity in maintaining good health (Warburton, Nicol & Bredin, 2006). This suggests that the benefits may not only be a product of psychological enhancement, but also the associated physio-psychological mechanisms. Alternatively, it could be a combination of both the psychological and physiological mechanisms associated with physical activity which results in the observed effects. Research supporting the
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benefits of physical activity includes the work by Parfitt and Eston (2005), who compared children’s levels of physical activity and the associations with self-esteem, depression and anxiety. Their findings showed positive correlations between activity level of measures of self-esteem, and negative associations with depression and anxiety, suggesting engagement in physical activity to have positive implications for dimensions of well-being.
The experience of social support which can be derived through some leisure activities has been identified as a means of reducing loneliness and of enhancing health and well-being (Caldwell & Smith, 1988). Similarly, Lammel (2004) found that leisure- related variables influenced psychological well-being in individuals who had suffered traumatic brain injuries. It was suggested that this influence was achieved through social support mechanisms. Social factors, therefore, appear to play an important role in the link between leisure activities and the associated benefits for well-being.
This review suggests that there is consistent evidence in the literature of the benefits of engagement in leisure for health and well-being. This has been shown to be apparent through processes such as stress-relief, social support and alleviation of negative mood. The extent to which individuals derive positive experiences and effects from leisure is dependant on the type of activity. That is, leisure activities vary in relation to the way they facilitate experiences. For example, some leisure activities are solitary pursuits (e.g., stamp collecting) which do not integrate the influence of social support, but remain enjoyable for the individual. Others are sedentary pursuits (e.g., knitting), and therefore do not endorse the physical benefits which other activities provide (e.g., cycling). However, the fact that leisure pursuits are intrinsically motivated suggests that the enjoyment which leisure provides can be consistently demonstrated across a range of leisures and can therefore hold similar psychological experiences and benefits. One such positive experience is “flow”, which is promoted through intrinsic motivation for an activity, coupled with feelings of heightened enjoyment which derived from a perceived sense of freedom and exertion of control in an activity (Csikszentmihalyi, 1975).
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The concept of flow was first established by Csikszentmihalyi based on his observations of a group of artists. He noticed that they were deeply immersed in their work and showed high levels of enjoyment. He observed that this deep involvement with the activity could be explained by the fact that the rewards from the process of painting seemed to derive from the painting itself (Csikszentmihalyi, 1988). In this way, the artists appeared to be intrinsically motivated by the processes of painting.
Csikzentmihalyi’s (1992) subsequent observations of individuals engaged in a range of activities (e.g., rock climbing, rock dancing, chess), led him to propose that flow states occur more freely in those activities which are structurally designed to facilitate deeper levels of concentration and involvement. This distinguishes “optimal experiences” from normal, everyday tasks (Csikzentmihalyi, 2003), and describes a psychological state in which an individual behaves freely from societal or cultural controls due to the power of the consciousness (Csikszentmihalyi, 1988). To provide a holistic approach to the study of these enjoyable experiences, Csikszentmihalyi (1975) proposed that the examination had to move beyond simply knowing the individual’s learned associations to pleasant experiences and the characteristics of the activity, to account for the individual’s abilities and subjective evaluation of the situation. The interaction between these processes he suggested, determines the enjoyment of the activity. In this way, flow theory focuses on the relationship between the individual’s skills with the personal meanings they derive through the activity.
Intrinsic motivation constitutes a key component of the flow experience, and this is strongly associated with the notion that an individual undertakes an activity purely for the sake of doing it. Csikszentmihalyi (1993) used the word “autotelic” to describe this phenomenon, meaning that the activity is an end in itself. Autotelic is taken from the Latin words auto and telic (auto = self, telic = goal or purpose). The individual is focused on the processes involved in the activity, rather than its potential consequences (Csikszentmihalyi, 1992). The main characteristic of the autotelic experience being that it is an experience which is rewarding enough in itself, to promote continued behaviour, in the absence of other rewards (Csikszentmihalyi, 1975).
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Flow refers to a process in which each action follows the previous action, with no conscious intervention of the individual (Csikszentmihalyi, 1975, 1990). To explain a behaviour, flow theory emphasises the situational variables and meaning derived from a given situation by an individual. Furthermore, flow occurs when the capabilities of the individual are at a level equal to the challenge of a specific activity (Csikszentmihalyi & Csikszentmihalyi, 1988; Massimini & Carli, 1988). The nature of this balance is integral to the individual’s perceptions of enjoyment which can be derived from an activity. Supporting evidence for the positive consequences of an optimal balance between skill and challenge includes Clarke and Haworth (1994) and Haworth and Evans (1995) who demonstrated that high enjoyment value of an activity was associated with the balance of high challenge and equal skill. Furthermore, perceptions of high challenge-skill balance have been associated with a range of positive indictors including high levels of arousal, intrinsic motivation, positive affect and enjoyment (Csikszentmihalyi, 1975, 1982; Ellis et al., 1994; LeFevre, 1988), and to have positive consequences for engagement in classroom learning (Shernoff, Csikszentmihalyi, Schneider & Shernoff, 2003) and self-affirmation 3in daily living (Voelkl & Ellis, 1998).
The notion of a balance between skill and challenge, has led researchers to produce models of skill and challenge ratios, and to study the effects of different balances (Clarke & Haworth, 1994; Csikszentmihalyi, 1997; Ellis et al., 1994; Haworth & Evans, 1995; Massimini & Carli, 1988). Such flow models are discussed in further detail in the following section.