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During the 1990s employment patterns of European families experienced a distinctive change. EU statistics show a clear trend away from one-earner couples towards two-earner families in all Member States covered by the data (Figure 3). Concerning couples with children under the age of 15, the proportion of dual-earner families increased from 1992 to 2000 by 4% in France and Italy and by 7% in Portugal and the UK.

Figure 3. Employment patterns in families with children in 1992 and 2000. Percentage of couples at least one partner in paid work.

Source: Eurostat (60/2000/21/5–2002): 1997 data for Ireland, 1999 data for Luxembourg and UK.

However, the proportion of dual-earner and one-earner families still varies within Europe. As many as three quarters of couples are dual-earners in Portugal and the figures for the UK and France are almost at the same level. However, only 46% of couples were dual-earners in Italy in 2000. Finland is not included in Figure 3 but dual-earner families have been the dominant mode there for three decades. Thus, the traditional family pattern

E M P L O Y M E N T P A T T E R N S I N F A M I L I E S W I T H C H I L D R E N I N 1 9 9 2 & 2 0 0 0 ( % O f C o u p l e s w i t h a t l e a s t o n e p a r t n e r i n w o r k ) 0 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0 6 0 7 0 8 0 B D E L E F I R L I L N L A P U K 1 9 9 2 o n e - e a r n e r 1 9 9 2 t w o - e a r n e r 2 0 0 0 o n e e a r n e r 2 0 0 0 T w o - e a r n e r s

having the male as the sole breadwinner has become considerably less common in Europe during the last decade. From the five countries included in this project, one-earner families form the majority only in Italy.

On the other hand, there are several different kinds of dual-earner couples. Both partners may be working full-time or either of them may work part-time. In principle, both could be working part-time, as well. When the share of dual-earner couples was discussed above, Portugal, the UK and France were seen to be close to each other. However, when the composition of their dual-earner families is concerned, particularly Portugal and the UK are very far from each other (Figure 4). In Portuguese dual-earner couples, practically all women and men work full-time but in the UK, it is most usual that a full-time working man lives together with a woman who works part-time, not full-time.

Figure 4. Forms of labour market participation by couples in 2000.

Source: Eurostat (60/2000/21/5–2002): 1997 data for Ireland, 1999 data for Luxembourg and UK.

In all European countries covered by the data, male part-time work is extremely rare, irrespective whether the female spouse works full-time or part-time. In Portugal (and in Finland) also female part-time work is very rare. Instead, in Britain it is very usual. France and Italy are situated between these two extremes, having a larger group of female part- time/male full-time working couples than Portugal and Finland but, at the same time, having this group outnumbered by dual-full-time-working families.

The working patterns of our sample seem to follow the general characteristics of European employees as a recent survey found out that around 50% of European employees work during evenings, 50% working on Saturdays and 25% on Sundays (Kauppinen 2001, 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 B D EL E F IRL I L NL A P UK

One earner couple Male part-time, female part-time Male part-time, female full-time Male full-time, female part-time Male full-time, female full-time

3). In particular, many Italians (63%) work on Saturdays, and many Finns (39%) work on Sundays. Portugal (18%) and Italy (22%) have the lowest percentages when it comes to working on Sundays. The survey also found that 76% of European employees have fixed working time schedules but that 41% do not work the same number of hours every day.

However, the increase in dual worker households has not had a substantial impact on the traditional pattern of women as main carers and primarily responsible for household tasks. Here there is a distinctive gap between values and gender roles. The European Value Study (1999/2000) found that most people see an equal sharing of household tasks as contributing to a successful partnership. The study also showed that in the countries represented in our sample most people judge fathers to be equally good at caring for their children as mothers (80% in France, 86% in Finland, 71% in Britain, 69% in Italy and 68% in Portugal). In the case of caring for older people, the European Value Study indicated that many people still see caring for their parents as a moral obligation (67% in Portugal, 67% Italian, 63% in France, 47% in Britain and 43% in Finland). Most couples also agreed that care should be shared.

3.5.2. The sample of dual-career families from Finland, France, Italy, Portugal