114 Study Rationale and Context
With increasing management and labor mobility, and ever more culturally diverse societies, “the theme of preparing students for operating in global scenarios is seen repeatedly in higher education literature, with competencies in intercultural communication a priority” (Briguglio, 2007). Business schools play a pivotal role in developing, and training people to be
interculturally competent, and capable of working in international, or culturally diverse settings so that they can become effective global leaders (Hawawini, 2005, p. 771). This study is based on the premise that, in the 21st century, intercultural competence, and the related skills, are paramount for undergraduate business students to maximize their effectiveness in global or culturally diverse settings.
The present study focuses on the business program at a Canadian university within the province of Ontario, Canada. In the winter semester of 2014, 1,211 students were enrolled in the business program. The University’s culturally diverse student body can be a tremendous natural resource that can potentially give rise to an abundance of opportunities for intercultural
competence development among business students. The present study fills a gap in the literature by focusing on a Canadian tertiary business program, and exploring the extent to which: 1) which students' prior intercultural experiences are associated with their intercultural competence development; 2) personal factors are associated with intercultural competence development, 3) business program factors are associated with intercultural competence development, and 4) the impact of the program factors on students' future professional preferences.
115 Methodology
In the present study, a sequential mixed methods methodology is utilized to identify the factors influencing intercultural competence development among undergraduate business students at a Canadian university. Creswell and Plano Clark (2007, p. 5) assert that
Creswell (2009, p. 5) posits that researchers’ worldviews shape their approach to their research; therefore, they should “make explicit the larger philosophical ideas they espouse.” Although many scholars (Creswell, 2009) point to the pragmatic worldview as providing a philosophical basis for mixed methods research, others, such as Johnson, Onwuegbuzie, and Turner (2007, p. 126) argue that “variation in particular philosophical commitments should be welcome in mixed methods research…a view shared by Greene” (Greene, 2006 as cited in Johnson, Onwuegbuzie, & Turner, 2007, p. 7). As elucidated in the literature review, the philosophical paradigm underpinning the current study is social constructivism, which has its roots in Berger and Leukmann's (1967) The Social Construction of Reality and Lincoln and Guba's (1985) Naturalistic Inquiry (Creswell, 2009). Social constructivism is based on the premise that knowledge is socially constructed and therefore contextually contingent (Creswell, 2009). Lincoln and Guba (2000) posit that individuals develop subjective meanings of their experiences. With this in mind, a mixed methods methodology is used to capture multiple ways of understanding the extent to which prior intercultural experience, personal factors, and
Mixed methods research is a research design with philosophical assumptions as well as methods of inquiry. As a methodology, it involves philosophical assumptions that guide the direction of the collection and analysis of data and the mixture of
qualitative and quantitative data in a single study or series of studies. Its central premise is that the use of quantitative and qualitative approaches in combination provides a better understanding of research problems than either approach alone could.
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program factors are associated with intercultural competence development among business students at the university.
To identify the factors influencing intercultural competence develop among business students, the variables must be operationalized. In other words, to facilitate measurement, variations within each category have been defined as operational factors. Shuttleworth (2008) defines operationalization as "the process of strictly defining variables into measurable factors...[which] can be measured empirically and quantitatively." These lists aim to be inclusive, however, they are not exhaustive.
The quantitative component of the study provides a means of identifying, measuring, and comparing the impact of the following variables on business students' intercultural competence development: 1) prior intercultural contact type, that is, the ways in which participants engaged with culturally dissimilar others prior to the business program, 2) personal factors, that is, personal characteristics of study participants, 3) business program factors, that is, the ways in engage with students from culturally dissimilar backgrounds while enrolled in the business program, methods of instruction, curriculum, and external program factors, that is, extra- curricular and co-curricular activities, 4) the extent to which participants' experiences in the business program influenced their thinking about their future professional lives, and 5) self- reported intercultural competence. In tandem with the quantitative methods, the qualitative component of the study generates findings that provide deeper insights into the research topic by illuminating participants' views related to the research topic.
Methods and Rationale
Method triangulation enhances the credibility and reliability of the present study's findings and affords a deeper understanding of the phenomenon being explored. By combining multiple methods to gather data, more comprehensive data was obtained, and inconsistencies were readily
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identified and explored (Patton, 2002). Patton (2002) argues that inconsistencies should viewed as an opportunity to unearth deeper meaning in the data. In light of this, method triangulation enhances the robustness of the data and, thereby, the credibility and of the study (Patton, 2002).
In the current study, sequential mixed methods research design is used to develop rich insights that could not be afforded by either a quantitative or qualitative method alone (Creswell, 2009). In this research inquiry, in addition to the quantitative findings, the qualitative
component of the study generates findings that provide deeper insights into the research topic by illuminating participants' views pertaining to the ways in which, and the extent to which, program factors influenced the development of their intercultural competence, and their future professional goals. The instruments utilized in the quantitative phase, specifically, the
Intercultural Competence among Canadian Business Students (ICCBS) survey and the Cultural Intelligence Scale (CQS) (Ang, et al 2007), are discussed in greater detail later in this chapter. The ICCBS survey was developed for the present study and captures quantitative and qualitative data. Data gathered through the CQS is quantitative, and qualitative data is gathered through the telephone interviews. Mixed methods research is premised on the contention that this research design provides a more comprehensive account and a deeper understanding of the research problem than either quantitative or qualitative methods alone (Creswell, 2009).
Survey Method
The survey method was employed to provide a “quantitative or numeric description of trends, attitudes, or opinions of a population by studying a sample of that population” (Creswell, 2009, p. 145). For the purposes of the current study, views will be synonymous with opinions. The ICCBS was designed specifically for this study to capture data with the aim of identifying correlations between the independent variables, such as, prior intercultural or international experience, personal factors, and program factors, and the dependent variable, intercultural competence development among undergraduate business students. The survey method, as
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opposed to interviewing students, allows respondents to remain anonymous during this phase of the study and this increases the tendency to answer questions candidly by minimizing
participants' concerns about being perceived in a negative light for expressing views.
Furthermore, the survey method facilitates data retrieval in a systematic and consistent manner that allows the findings to be generalized from the sample respondents to the population of business students at the University. From this, inferences can be made about the personal and program factors that influence intercultural competence development among undergraduate business students in the business program (Creswell, 2009). Limitations arising from the sample in this study are discussed in Chapter Five.
In spite of its many advantages, the survey method, when using web-based surveys, also presents the following challenges (Dillman, 2007). Firstly, prospective respondents may
inadvertently delete emails from unknown sources. Secondly, some may not trust that, in spite of assurances to the contrary, their responses will be anonymous. Third, if the survey is not user- friendly, potential respondents may not complete the survey out of frustration. Fourth, spam blockers may prevent the email from reaching its intended recipient. Fifth, Dillman (2007, p. 357) points out that vast discrepancies exist between capabilities of software and computers from individual to individual, so, these differences may impact the visual appearance of the web- based survey. These differences are compounded by accompanying differences in Internet server capabilities (Dillman, 2007, p. 357). Sixth, there are also variations in levels of computer literacy among respondents (Dillman, 2007, 358). In concert, these variations were considered in the design of the survey. The survey is administered using an online survey tool, SurveyMonkey, a commercial product that makes it possible to email the surveys to participants.
Intercultural Competence among Canadian Business Students (ICCBS) Survey. The variables of interest are aligned with the research questions and assigned to the following categories: prior intercultural experience, personal characteristics, program attributes, future
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work preferences, and self-reported intercultural competence. The operational definitions for each category of variables are presented in Tables 1 to 7. In the present study, the first two variables, prior intercultural contact and personal variables, are exogenous. For the purposes of the present study, prior intercultural contact refers to the various ways in which participants have engaged with individuals from culturally or ethnically dissimilar backgrounds or their
international experiences. This variable has been defined into distinct and measureable factors which are presented in Table 1
Table1
Operational Definitions for Prior Intercultural Contact Operational Definition
Canadian International Development Agency Study abroad program
International exchange program Resided abroad
Volunteered in intercultural setting Other
The last response option in Table 1 provides participants with an open text response option to gather data describing types of engagement or international experiences that were not listed among the predefined options. To capture additional data pertaining to the types of study abroad programs, international internships, or international exchanges in which respondents
participated, variations of these have been defined into measurable terms which are presented in Table 2.
120 Table 2
Operational Definitions for Prior International Programs Operational Definitions
Short-term led by home institution faculty and designed by home institution program designers Short-term led by home institution faculty and designed in partnership with host institution program designers
Long-term led by home institution faculty and designed by home institution program designers Long-term led by home institution faculty and designed in partnership with host institution program
Short-term international exchange program Long-term international exchange program
Third-party short-term study abroad program provider Third-party long-term study abroad program provider Other
Note: Short-term is defined as 2 to 9 weeks. Long-term is defined as 1 or more semesters Once again, variations within in this category have been strictly articulated into measureable factors. The operationalized personal factors are presented in Table 3. The predefined options are not exhaustive, therefore, the endmost other option is an open-ended response option.
121 Table 3
Operational Definitions for Personal Factors Operational Definitions
Gender Age
Father's highest level of obtained education Mother's highest level of obtained education Region in which formative years were spent Years resided in other country or countries
Social networking with people from other cultures or countries Time spent networking with people from other cultures or countries Year of anticipated graduation
Major field
Primary cultural/ethnic identification Secondary cultural/ethnic identification Languages in which participants are proficient
Although the variable "region in which formative years were spent" appears in Table 3, since formative years span from puberty to adulthood, this factor is related to both prior intercultural experience and personal factors. For the purposes of the analysis in this study, however, region in which formative years were spent will be categorized as a personal variable.
The endogenous variables have been divided into the following four domains of interest: 1) intercultural contact during the program, 2) methods of instruction, 3) curriculum, and 4)
external program factors. In Tables 4 to 7, the operational definitions for each of these factors is presented. These lists are by no means exhaustive.
122 Table 4
Operational Definitions for Intercultural Contact During Program Operational Definitions
Course group assignments Virtual online teams Business student clubs
Business student run conferences Career recruiting processes Experiential learning Sports activities
Extra-curricular activities Other
In Table 4, intercultural contact type during the program refers to the ways in which participants socially interact with students from culturally dissimilar cultural or ethnic backgrounds while enrolled in the business program. Although group assignments, or teamwork, provide
opportunities for social skill development, interacting with individuals from unfamiliar cultural or ethnic backgrounds does not always result intercultural competence development (Volet & Ang, 1998; Bennett, 2001; Briguglio, 2006).
123 Table 5
Operational Definitions for Methods of Instruction Operational Definitions
Incorporate international experience into lectures Compare business practices in different cultural contexts International or intercultural case studies
Class discussions focusing on the impact of cultural differences in business settings Comparative analysis of different regions
Class discussions focusing on the impact of cultural differences in business settings Class discussions focusing on the impact of cultural differences on leadership practices Students with international experience share different cultural perspectives pertaining to business topics
According to Gundling, Hogan, and Cvitkovich (2011), effective global leadership begins with being able to see the [cultural] differences. Methods of instruction aimed to raise
awareness about culture and cultural differences, among business students, are operationalized and presented in Table 5.
124 Table 6
Operational Definitions for Curriculum Components Operational Definitions
Comparative cultural course content in text books or supplementary materials Textbooks, articles, or videos originating from other countries
Lectures presented by international guest speakers Intercultural or international teamwork
Virtual (online) teamwork with people who live in other countries Experiential learning
International experience
Second language proficiency requirement
Career seminars or panel discussions with successful alumni Consultations with executives on staff regarding work placement Personal development coaching
Scholars such as Ellingboe (1993), Deardorff (2003), Bond (2003), and Mestenhauser (2011), contend that internationalization of the curriculum is crucial to the development of intercultural competence development among students. In Table 6, some of the operational definitions for curriculum components exemplify ways in which intercultural competence development can be integrated into the curriculum.
125 Table 7
Operational Definitions for External Program Factors Operational Definitions
Business program study abroad Intercultural training/workshop
Business school seminars about cultural differences Business school peer mentoring program
Business student clubs Extra-curricular activities
In the Table 7, the operational definitions for external program factors are presented. External program factors include both co-curricular and extra-curricular activities. For each domain of interest, three survey items are designed to capture data concerning: 1) the frequency with which participants experienced or participated; 2) the extent to which participants view each component as increasing their interest in culture based behavioral differences; and 3) the extent to which they viewed the component as improving their intercultural competence. For the survey item pertaining to either whether respondents experienced or participated in a particular component or activity or the extent to which they participated, the response options are
dichotomous. In the latter case, a four-point Likert scale consists of the following response options: 1) never, 2) rarely, 3) sometimes, or 4) often. The four-point Likert scale response options for the second and third survey item, for each domain of interest, are as follows: 1) not at all, 2) very little, 3) somewhat, or 4) to a great extent. The four-point scale was selected to prevent participants from selecting a neutral option, such as "not applicable." For the most part, the survey items were designed to retrieve quantitative data; however, in some instances an open
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ended response format was included to capture qualitative data. Subsequent sections of this chapter elucidate the approach utilized to analyze both the quantitative and qualitative data. The survey is constructed in accordance with Dillman’s (2007) total design method. To increase response rates, Dillman points to social exchange theory to explain that “actions of individuals are motivated by the returns these actions are expected to bring, and in fact usually do bring, from others” (Blau, 1964; Gallegos, 1974; Dillman, 1978; Goyder, 1987 as cited in Dillman, 2007, p. 14). Dillman (2007) identifies the following three critical items for predicting a specific action: 1) rewards, in this case, what a student might expect to gain from responding to the survey; 2) costs, what the student would be required to invest, in terms of time, effort or opportunity cost, or disclosing information; and 3) trust, which in this case would be the expectation that the reward of responding to the survey will exceed the costs. In the current study, the recruitment email, presented in Appendix A, informs students about the valuable contribution they would be making to the study and they were offered a summary of the research findings upon request. In addition, they were invited to enter a raffle for prizes upon completion of the survey. Students were informed that the survey would take approximately 15 minutes to complete, the CQS would take 5 minutes to complete, and the telephone interview would take approximately 20 minutes.
Pilot Study. The ICCBS was tested for face validity, that is, the extent to which items are logically linked to the underlying theoretical constructs (Creswell, 2008), and content validity. Respectively, both of these aspects of the survey's validity were established when the survey was reviewed by students, and by reviewers who had extensive knowledge of the subject matter. The ICCBS wasfirst administered via email, using SurveyMonkey, to all business students
comparable to the target population. Thirty students participated in the pilot study. This pilot-test was performed to ensure that items are understood in the same way by all respondents; each item only contains one idea; items were free of bias and jargon; all of the possible responses are
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included for the closed ended items; and the items are logically sequenced (Mertens, 2009, p. 116-117). In addition to completing the survey, pilot study participants were requested to comment regarding areas in need of enhancement or clarification where appropriate. The pilot test provided an opportunity to retrieve valuable feedback from respondents with a view toward enhancing the instrument. The survey was revised in accordance with pilot participants'
suggestions. The final version of the survey is presented in its entirety in Appendix E.
CQS. After completing the survey, respondents were invited to complete the CQS (Ang et al., 2007), as a means of measuring their CQ as one component of their intercultural competence. The instrument's developers make the scale freely available to academics for research targeted at publication in scholarly journals. Based on empirical evidence, the CQS has been found to be stable across samples, time, and cultural contexts (Van Dyne, Ang, & Koh, 2009). In addition to this, empirical findings reveal that self-rated scores are strongly correlated with observer-related scores (Van Dyne, Ang, & Koh, 2009). The CQS is presented in Appendix F.
To determine whether the CQS was reliable and valid in relation to the present study's