Learning is developed through activity (Papert, 1990). According to Oliver et al. (2007) learning activities are a “deliberately planned set of experiences that are intended to help them (learners) to learn” (p.65). Qiao, Sun & Wang (2009) describe learning activity as “an interaction between a learner and an environment (optionally involving other learners, practitioners, resources, tools and services) to achieve a planned learning outcome” (p.127). This definition is also supported by Beetham (2007) who states that a learning activity is an interaction between learners and the environment or others using selected tools and resources targeted towards an outcome. It is noted that in some research ‘learning activity’ is expressed as ‘learning scenarios’.
28
Hannafin (1992) posits that learning is not achieved by “mastery of formal knowledge per se, but by activities that progressively refine and qualify relationships among connected elements” (p.54). While Gagne (1985) and Hannafin & Land (1997) emphasise learning activities as the engineering of external conditions which are believed to activate the internal processes needed for effective learning. Learning activities should also engage learners in meaningful and relevant tasks so that they can see the direct implications of their actions and can further apply the knowledge gained in their context (Wilson & Cole, 1996, and Dabbagh, 2005). This means that the design of learning activities could take into account context and create opportunities for learners to make meaning within their context. As proposed by Oliver et al. (2002) learning “is achieved by the active construction of knowledge supported by multiple perspectives within a meaningful context” (p.496). There is further discussion on learning in Section 3.3, which explains the use of social constructivism as the theoretical framework.
Hannafin & Land (1997) take the perspective that technology enhanced learning can “provide interactive, complimentary activities that enable individuals to address unique interests and needs, study multiple levels of complexity, and deepen understanding” (p.168). Beetham (2007) on the other hand states that learning design should focus first on activities and only then on the tools or resources to support them. She believes that if learners engage in an activity then they are also responding to the task afforded by the tools. Nevertheless, tools that afford learning are an essential part of the learning design.
Beetham (2007) has positioned learning activity as central to the design process, which also includes factors on which design decisions are based. She proposed four factors which support design decisions, which are the learning environment, the learners, learning outcomes and ‘others’. I have adapted Beetham’s (2007) Outline of Learning Activity to make it suitable for this research as in Diagram 4.
29
Diagram 4: Outline of Learning Activity (Adapted from Beetham, 2007)
In Beetham’s (2007) Outline of Learning Activity, she includes ‘learning outcomes’ as a factor; however, I have changed this factor to ‘theoretical principles’ as it was more relevant to this research. Theoretical principles focus more on theory building aspects of Gorard & Taylor Design Learning Model (2004) as in Diagram 3 explained earlier. Thus, theoretical principles fit more in this research. Theoretical principles are also an element in the design of mobile learning activities as discussed further in Chapter 3. I have also changed ‘others’ into ‘tool’ in order to concentrate more on the affordance of mobile phone for learning rather than a general ‘others’. Therefore for this study, the factors in the design of the learning activity are the theoretical principles, learning environment, the learners, and tool.
The learning environment and learners are two factors in the Outline of Learning Activity (Diagram 4) that describe the background aspects of the context in which the design of learning activities for this research is based. Passey (2010) recognises that the design of mobile learning activities must consider tasks, technical issues, the political and cultural
Learning Activity
Specific interaction of learner(s) with other people, using specific
tools & resources, oriented towards specific outcomes
Learner(s)
Identities, needs, abilities, preferences
Learning Environment Background, culture, learning context (physical & virtual) Theoretical Principles Learning outcome, process, abilities Tool
30
context of the learning environment. These are represented in the factors of learning environment and also the learners in the Outline of Learning Activity (Diagram 4). There are many decisions that underpin the design for mobile learning in a particular context. Effective practice for learning design is based on a range of approaches for learning activities, perceptions of learners’ needs, the nature of the learning environment, and the intended outcomes based on theoretical principles. Most importantly, learning using ICT should be directed towards extending learning potential and not just use ICT for its own sake (JISC, 2004b).
Hannafin & Land (1997) call for cultural foundations to be reflected in the design process because the values and roles of the individual in society are linked to the acceptance of learning. This is being reviewed through the section on learning environment and learners. The learning environment element in this research comprises ICT in HEIs, the Malaysian HEIs context and usage of ICT in Malaysian HEIs. Guralnich (2008) stressed the importance of the learner’s environment as a factor in the design of mobile learning activities. The challenge of designing for learners is that they “have different priorities, preferences and approaches to learning, and different requirements for support” (Beetham, 2007, p.31). Malaysian HE students are also discussed in the following sections of this chapter. This provides understanding of cultural background of the learning environment and the participants of this study.
The last element from the model of learning activities design in Diagram 4 is the ‘tool’ and in this research, the tool is represented as the mobile phone. According to Beetham (2007), available technologies and how learners use them for specific activities are essential aspects of learning design. The way that learners use technology is referred to as ‘affordances’ or learning meditation, and it is noted that tools can have different meanings in different contexts (Beetham, 2007). The affordances of the mobile phone for learning in HEIs, possible mobile learning activities, and the challenges of mobile learning implementation are also discussed in this chapter.
Hannafin (1992) posits that learning activities are “substantially less explicit, identifiable, and singular, while being substantially more complex, individual, and internally centred” (p.52). Dunlap & Grabinger (1996) and Passey (2010) propose that meaningful learning can be achieved through the provision of a variety of learning activities. It is noted that design
31
for learning is intricate and does not progress in a linear way from theory to principle to practice, rather it iterates between the two. Passey (2010) stresses the need for mobile learning activities within a learning context that encompasses a wider system that includes both formal and informal elements. The most important aspect of designing learning activities in this research is the engagement of learners in these activities. The outcome of the activity needs also to be significant to learners’ learning and based on their context.
The sections that follow are reviews of the factors in the learning activity model: the learning environment (an HEI in a Malaysian context and the use of ICT in this context), the learners (Malaysian HE students as digital learners) and the tools (affordances of the mobile phone to support learning within an HEI course).