Análisis de Factores Internos que influyen en los Hedge Funds

Medicinal plants are of particular interest in the treatment of cancer. Plants with anticancer-potential have been found all over the world.

In Chile, the leaves of Boldo (Peumus boldus Molina, Monimiaceae) are hepatoprotective, because they contain aporphine-like alkaloids such as boldine.⁴¹ Boldine has also shown antitumor properties. The South American plant Annona muricata L. (Annonaceae), also known as Graviola, contains acetogenine, which is of great interest in cancer chemotherapy because it has been shown to inhibit multi-drug resistance in cancer cells.⁴¹Pau d’Arco-Lapacho (Tabebuia impetiginosa (Mart. Ex DC.) Standl., Bignoniaceae) grows in the Amazon rainforest and other parts of South America and contains lapachol and beta-lapachone I. The latter is assumed to be a potent antitumor compound.⁴¹

The compound alvaradoin E is found in the leaves of Alvaradoa hai-tiensis Urb. (Picramniaceae), which originates in the Dominican Republic.

This compound shows antileukemic activity.⁵⁸ The bulb of Pancratium littorale Jacq. (Amaryllidaceae) contains pancratistatin 3,4-O-cyclic phos-phate sodium salt, which also has anticancer potential. The rocaglate derivate silvestrol was detected in the fruit and twigs of Aglaia foveolata Pan-nell (Meliaceae) collected in Indonesia. Silvestrol reveals cytotoxic effects against human cell lines derived from breast, prostate and lung cancers.⁵⁸

Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don (Apocynaceae) is a well-known plant containing Vinca alkaloids. The Vinca alkaloids bind to two high affin-ity sites on each tubulin dimer. This binding results in a stabilization of theαβ-heterodimer and consequently in destabilization of microtubles.⁵⁹ Paclitaxel was isolated from Taxus brevifolia Nutt. (Taxaceae, cortex) and promotes the destabilization of microtubules. It causes mitotic arrest by preventing proper assembly of the mitotic spindle or by reducing chromo-some oscillations. There is also a taxol-binding site at the amino terminus of β-tubulin.⁵⁹In China, high levels of paclitaxel are found in Taxus chinensis (Miq.) de Laub. (Taxaceae).

A herbal mixture of the following plants, all of which grow in India Claoxylon hassianum, Celrodentrum walichii Merr. (Verbenaceae), Mus-saenda macrophylla Wall. (Rubiaceae), Phlogacanthus thyrsiformis (Hard.) Mabb. (Acanthaceae) and Thevesia pamata, has been reported to be effective against cancer.⁴⁷

There are many plants used in TCM that have anticancer potential.

Camptothecin is isolated from Camptotheca acuminata Decne. (Nyssaceae), which grows in China and inhibits the ligation of DNA after topoiso-merase I-mediated DNA strand breaks.³¹Podophyllum emodi var. chinense (Berberidaceae), a Chinese medicinal plant, contains podophyllotoxin.³¹ Other targets to treat cancer include proteins of signal transduction path-ways in malignant cancer cells. For example, emodin was found in Chinese Rheum palmatum L. (Polygonaceae) and inhibits casein-kinase 2. Verbasco-side, isolated from Garcinia hanburyi Hook. F. (Clusiaceae) inhibits telom-erase. Telomerases are essential for tumor cell immortalization.³¹Another strategy for cancer treatment is inhibition of tumor angiogenesis. Cap-saicin, found in various Capsicum species L. (Solanaceae) and sinomemine, found in Sinomenium acutum (Thunb.) Rehd. et Wils. (Menispermaceae), are natural inhibitors of angiogenesis.³¹

REFERENCES

1. Cassis G. (1998) Biodiversity loss: a human health issue. The Medical J Australia 169: 568–569.

2. Jutro PR. (1991) Biological diversity, ecology, and global climate change.

Environ Health Perspect 96: 167–170.

Biodiversity of Medicinal Plants 29 3. Osborn L. (2011) Number of Species Identified on Earth. http://www.current-results.com/Environment-Facts/Plants-Animals/number-species.php (29.09.

2011)

4. GOLD (Genomes OnLine Database). (2011) http://genomesonline.org/cgi-bin/GOLD/bin/gold.cgi?page_requested=Complete+Genome+Projects (07.

10.2011)

5. Wang X, Greenfield P, Li D, et al. (2011) Complete genome sequence of a nonculturable methanococcus maripaludis strain extracted in a metagenomic survey of petroleum reservoir fluids. J Bacteriol 193: 5595.

6. Krause DO, Little AC, Dowd SE, et al. (2011) Complete genome sequence of adherent invasive Escherichia coli UM146 isolated from Ileal Crohn’s disease biopsy tissue. J Bacteriol 193: 583.

7. Lander ES, Linton LM, Birren B, et al. (2001) International Human Genome Sequencing Consortium. Initial sequencing and analysis of the human genome. Nature 409: 860–921.

8. Leipe DD. (1996) Biodiversity, genomes, and DNA sequence databases. Curr Opin Genet Dev 6: 686–691.

9. Wuketits FM. (1997) The status of biology and the meaning of biodiversity.

Naturwissenschaften 84: 473–479.

10. Gaston KJ. (2000) Global patterns in biodiversity. Nature 405: 220–227.

11. Basso LA, da Silva LH, Fett-Neto AG, et al. (2005) The use of biodiversity as source of new chemical entities against defined molecular targets for treatment of malaria, tuberculosis, and T-cell mediated diseases — a review. Memorias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz 100: 475–506.

12. Rollinger JM, Langer T, Stuppner H. (2006) Strategies for efficient lead struc-ture discovery from natural products. Curr Med Chem 13: 1491–1507.

13. Shuler ML. (1994) Bioreactor engineering as an enabling technology to tap biodiversity. The case of taxol. Ann NY Acad Sci 745: 455–461.

14. Tripathi CK, Tripathi D, Praveen V et al. (2007) Microbial diversity — biotech-nological and industrial perspectives. Indian J Exp Biol 45: 326–332.

15. Langer M, Gabor EM, Liebeton K, et al. (2006) Metagenomics: an inexhaustible access to nature’s diversity. Biotechnol J 1: 815–821.

16. Bull AT, Goodfellow M, Slater JH. (1992) Biodiversity as a source of innovation in biotechnology. Annual Rev Microbiol 46: 219–252.

17. Torsvik V, Ovreas L, Thingstad TF. (2002) Prokaryotic diversity — magnitude, dynamics, and controlling factors. Science 296: 1064–1066.

18. Hodkinson TR, Waldren S, Parnell JA, et al. (2007). DNA banking for plant breeding, biotechnology and biodiversity evaluation. J Plant Res 120: 17–29.

19. Singh A, Nigam PS, Murphy JD. (2010) Renewable fuels from algae: an answer to debatable land based fuels. Bioresour Technol 102: 10–16.

20. Costa JA, de Morais MG. (2010) The role of biochemical engineering in the production of biofuels from microalgae. Bioresour Technol J 102: 2–9.

21. Frusciante L, Barone A, Carputo D, et al. (2000) Evaluation and use of plant biodiversity for food and pharmaceuticals. Filoterapia 71: 66–72.

22. Hammer K, Arrowsmith N, Gladis T. (2003) Agrobiodiversity with emphasis on plant genetic resources. Die Naturwissenschaften 90: 241–250.

23. Johns T, Sthapit BR. (2004) Biocultural diversity in the sustainability of developing-country food systems. Food Nutr Bull 25: 143–155.

24. Lewis SL. (2006) Tropical forests and the changing earth system. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B 361: 195–210.

25. Chapin FS, Zavaleta ES, Eviner VT, et al. (2000) Consequences of changing biodiversity. Nature 405: 234–242.

26. McMichael AJ, Patz J, Kovats RS. (1998) Impacts of global environmental change on future health and health care in tropical countries. British Med Bull 54: 475–488.

27. Wildt DE. (2000) Genome Resource Banking for Wildlife Research, Manage-ment, and Conservation. ILAR J 21: 228–234.

28. Soejarto DD. (1996) Biodiversity prospecting and benefit-sharing: perspec-tives from the field. J Ethnopharmacol 51: 1–15.

29. Reid WV. (1996) Gene co-ops and the biotrade: translating genetic resource rights into sustainable development. J Ethnopharmacol 51: 75–92.

30. Heubl G. (2010) New aspects of DNA-based authentication of Chinese medic-inal plants by molecular biological techniques. Planta Med 76: 1963–1974.

31. Efferth T, Li PCH, Konkimalla VSB, et al. (2007) From traditional Chinese medicine to rational cancer therapy. Trends Mol Med 13: 353–361.

32. Zhang YB, Shaw PC, Sze CW, et al. (2006) Molecular authentication of Chinese herbal materials. J Food and Drug Analysis 15: 1–9.

33. Sucher NJ, Carles MC. (2008) Genome-based approaches to the authentication of medicinal plants. Planta Med 74: 603–623.

34. Cimino MT. (2010) Successful isolation and PCR amplification of DNA from National Institute of Standards and Technology herbal dietary supplement standard reference material powders and extracts. Planta Med 76: 495–497.

35. Latscha HP, Linti GW, Klein HA. (2003) Analytische chemie: Chemie-Basiswissen III, 4th edn. Berlin Heidelberg: Springer.

36. Mortimer CE, Müller U. (2007) Chemie, 9th edn. Stuttgart: Georg Thieme Verlag.

37. Yao H, Song J, Liu C, et al. (2010) Use of ITS2 region as the universal DNA barcode for plants and animals. PLoS One 5: e13102.

Biodiversity of Medicinal Plants 31 38. Lou SK, Wong KL, Li M, et al. (2010) An integrated web medicinal materials DNA database: MMDBD (Medicinal Materials DNA Barcode Database). BMC Genomics 11: 402.

39. United States Pharmacopeial Convention (2008) United States Pharmacopeia 2008.

40. Brazilian Pharmacopoeia Committee. Brazilian Pharmacopoeia.

41. Desmarchelier C. (2010) Neotropics and natural ingredients for pharmaceuti-cals: why isn’t South American biodiversity on the crest of the wave. Phytother Res 24: 791–799.

42. Benko-Iseppon AM, Crovella S. (2010) Ethnobotanical bioprospection of can-didates for potential antimicrobial drugs from Brazilian plants: state of art and perspectives. Current Protein and Peptide Science 11: 189–194.

43. Brendler T, Eloff JN, Gurib-Fakim A, et al. (2010) African Herbal Pharma-copoeia, 1st edn. (Association for African Medicinal Plants Standards).

44. Khalid SA. (2009) Decades of phytochemical research on African biodiversity.

Nat Prod Commun 4: 1431–1446.

45. Indian Pharmacopoeia Commission (2010) Indian Pharmacopoeia, 6th edition.

46. State Pharmacopoeia Commission of the PRC (2011) Pharmacopoeia of the Peoples’ Republic of China 2010, 9th edn., Stationery Office Books.

47. Rai PK. (2011) Assessment of multifaceted environmental issues and model development of an Indo-Burma hotspot region. Environ Monit Assess DOI:

10.1007/s10661-011-1951-8.

48. Soejarto DD, Zhang HJ, Fong HH, et al. (2006) Studies on biodiversity of Vietnam and Laos 1998–2005: examining the impact. J Nat Prod 69: 473–481.

49. Roeder E. (2000) Medicinal plants in China containing pyrrolizidine alkaloids.

Pharmazie 55: 711–726.

50. The Pharmaceutical Association of Australia and New Zealand (1934) The Australian and New Zealand Pharmaceutical Formulary 1934.

51. Palombo EA, Semple SJ. (2001) Antibacterial activity of traditional Australian medicinal plants. J Ethnopharmacol 77: 151–157.

52. Semple SJ, Reynolds GD, O’Leary MC, et al. (1998) Screening of Australian medicinal plants for antiviral activity. J Ethnopharmacol 60: 163–172.

53. European Pharmacopoeia Commission (2008) Europäisches Arzneibuch 6, (Deutscher Apotheker Verlag, Stuttgart).

54. German Pharmacopoeia Commission (2010) Deutsches Arzneibuch 2010, (Deutscher Apotheker Verlag, Stuttgart).

55. British Pharmacopoeia Commission (2010) British Pharmacopoeia 2010, 1st edn, (Stationery Office Books (TSO)).

56. Pieroni A. (2000) Medicinal plants and food medicines in the folk traditions of the upper Lucca Province, Italy. J Ethnopharmacol 70: 235–273.

57. Vázquez FM, Suarez MA, Pérez A. (1997) Medicinal plants used in the Barros Area, Badajoz Province (Spain). J Ethnopharmacol 55: 81–85.

58. Kinghorn AD, Chin YW, Swanson SM. (2009) Discovery of natural product anticancer agents from biodiverse organisms. Curr Opin Drug Discov Devel 12: 189–196.

59. Hung DT, Jamison TF, Schreiber SL. (1996) Understanding and controlling the cell cycle with natural products. Chem Biol 3: 623–639.

CHAPTER 2