3. HEDGE FUNDS Y RIESGO SISTÉMICO
3.3 Liquidaciones de Hedge Funds: Casos de Estudio
There exists an enormous variety of medicinal plants in the Amazon rain-forest. The medicinal plants of the United States are listed in the “United States Pharmacopeia”39 and the medicinal plants of Brazil are listed in
“Brazilian Pharmacopoeia.”40Euterpe oleracea Mart. (Arecaceae, common name: Açai) is a palm tree that grows in the Amazon Basin. Its fruits exert antioxidant activity due to their anthocyanins.41Another plant of the West-ern Amazon Basin that grows in regions such as Peru is Camu-Camu (Myr-ciaria dubia (H.B.K.) McVaugh, Myrtaceae). The high levels of vitamin C in the fruit provide antioxidant effects.41The red viscous latex of the bark of Croton lechleri L. (Euphorbiaceae) is also known as Dragon’s Blood.
This latex is used in the Amazon Valley for wound-healing and as an anti-inflammatory, antiviral and antitumor drug. Bioactive compounds include the alkaloid taspine, the lignan 3,4-O-dimethylcedrusin, various polyphe-nols and anthocyanidins.41In the rainforest of the western Amazon Basin of Peru, Bolivia and Ecuador, the large and woody vine Uncaria tomentosa (Willd.) DC. (Cat’s Claw, Rubiaceae) grows. Its quinovic acid glycosides and alkaloids act as an anti-inflammatory. In the Andes, Lepidium meyenii
Walp. (Brassicaceae, Maca) grows 4,000 meters above sea level. It has stim-ulant properties due to its isothiocyanates. Another plant of the Andes is the Asteraceae Smallanthus sonchifolius (Poepp. & Endl.) H. Rob. (also known as Yacón). It is effective in the treatment of hyperglycemia and kid-ney problems because it contains oligofructans and phenolic compounds.
The tuber also contains high levels of fructo-oligosaccharides.41 Paullinia cupana Kunth. (Sapindaceae, Guarana), a plant of the Amazon rainfor-est, produces a caffeine-rich fruit with stimulant effects.41In Brazil, many medicinal plants have been found.42Decoction of roots from Aleurites mol-luccanus (L.) Willd. (Euphorbiaceae) can be applied for the treatment of urinary and ovarian inflammations. The stem bark of Amburana cearensis (Allemao) A.C. Sm (Fabaceae) and also the fresh leaves or seeds are espe-cially useful against infected external ulcers and also vaginal and throat infections. The rhizome tissue of Costus spiralis Rosc. (Zingiberaceae) acts as an antimicrobial. Bromelia laciniosa Mart. ex Schult.f. (Bromeliaceae) is used for the treatment of hepatitis, other liver diseases and diarrhea.
Hancornia speciosa Gomes (Apocynaceae) is found in north-eastern Brazil.
This plant has also been used for the treatment of stomach diseases and diabetes.42 Mate (Ilex paraguariensis A.St.-Hil, Aquifoliaceae) is found in north-eastern Argentina, southern Brazil and Paraguay. It is used as tea, as an ingredient in dietary supplements, or as food. Stimulant and tonic effects are caused by its xanthine alkaloids. Stevia (Stevia rebaudiana (Bertoni) Bertoni, Asteraceae) grows in Paraguay and contains stevioside in its leaves.
Stevia is used as a low caloric sweetener in some foods.41
6.3.2. Medicinal plants of Africa
Medicinal plants of Africa are described in “African Herbal Pharmaco-poeia.”43A rich diversity of medicinal plants grows in Africa. One such plant is Triphyophyllum peltatum (Hutch, & Dalziel) Airy Shaw (Dioncophyl-laceae). It has antimalarial activity against Plasmodium falciparum.44 The alkaloid 5-O-demethyl-8-O-methyl-7-epidioncophylline A is responsible for this activity. Dolichos marginata ssp. erecta (Fabaceae, sphenostylins in root bark) and Chenopodium procerum Hochst. ex Moq (Chenopodiaceae, isoflavanoids in roots) show antifungal activity. The South African Garcinia
Biodiversity of Medicinal Plants 25
gerrardii Harvey ex T.R. Sim(Clusiaceae) contains prenylated xanthones in its root bark that are fungicidal.44 In Malawi, quinones are found in the root bark of Diospyrus usambarensis A. DC. (Ebendaceae) with mollus-cicdal and fungicidal effects, and Clusiaceae Hypericum revolutum Vahl contains chromenes, which are fungicidal as well.44In Zimbabwe, Parinari capensis Harv. (Chrysobalanaceae) contains diterpene lactones against fun-gal infections. The antifunfun-gal compound tetracycline has also been found in the root bark of Bauhinia rufescens Lam. (Fabaceae), growing in Niger.
(Vahl) R. Br. (Acanthaceae) grows in Madagascar and has antifungal prop-erties due to the two diterpenes fluricoserpol A and dolabeserpenoic acid A. Swartzia madagascariensis Desv. (Fabaceae) is a crop in East Africa. The saponines in the seeds are molluscocidal. The leaves of the endemic tree Polyscias dichroostachya Baker (Araliaceae), growing in Mauritius, show molluscocidal activity due to saponines.44
6.3.3. Medicinal plants of Asia
Two important pharmacopoeias in Asia are the “Indian Pharmacopoeia”45 and the “Pharmacopoeia of the Peoples’ Republic of China.”46 Medicinal plants in Asia are very diverse. This chapter focuses on plants from India, Vietnam, Laos and China.
Many ethnomedicinal plants are found in northeast India. Examples include Swertia angustifolia Buch.-Ham ex D. Don (Gentianaceae), used against fever and malaria; Stemona tuberosa Lour. (Stemonaceae), used for the treatment of asthma and tuberculosis and Dillenia indica L. (Dil-leniaceae), which is used against diarrhea and dysentery.47An example of a medicinal plant from Vietnam is Litsea verticillata Hance (Lauraceae).
The leaves and twigs of this plant contain an anti-HIV substance, the litesane sesquiterpene litsea verticillol.48 Verrucasin L acetate is an active macrocyclic trichothecene sesquiterpernoid, which is found in leaves and stem bark of Ficus fistulosa Reinw. Ex Blume (Moraceae). It shows anti-malarial activity.48In Laos, Asparagus cochinchiensis (Lour.) Merr. (Aspara-gaceae) reveals anti-HIV activity and Nauclea orientalis (L.) L. (Rubiaceae) displays antimalarial activity.48The Asteraceae Crassocephalum crepidioides (Benth.) S. Mooregrows is found in both Thailand and China. The plant
contains jacoline and jacobine. Decoctions of the whole plant are applied to treat fever, dysentery, gastroenteritis, urinary tract infection and mastitis.49 Senecio integrifolius var. fauriri (L.) Chlairy. (Asteraceae) is a traditional Chinese plant and is used against dysentery, conjunctivitis and tumefaction.
It contains the nontoxic alkaloids integrifoline, 7-angeloyltumeforcidine, 1,2-dihydrosenkirkine and 7-angeloylheliotridine.
6.3.4. Medicinal plants of Australia
The medicinal plants of Australia are listed in “The Australian and New Zealand Pharmaceutical Formulary.”50 Leaves from Amyema quandang (Lindl.) Tiegh. (Loranthaceae), leaves from Eremophila duttonii F. Muell.
(Myoporaceae) and stem base from Leidosperima viscidum R. Br. (Cyper-aceae) show activity against the gram-positive bacteria Bacillus cereus, Enterococcus faecalis, Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus pyrogenes. In traditional medicines, the plants are used against cold (Leidosperima vis-cidum), fever (Amyema quandang ), respiratory tract infection, sore throat, skin cuts, earache or eye inflamation (Eremophila duttonii).51 Euphor-bia australis Boiss. (EuphorEuphor-biaceae) shows an incomplete inhibition of the gram-negative bacteria Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseu-domonas aeruginosa and Salmonella typhimurium. Euphorbia australis is traditionally used for skin sores and medicinal washes.
Two examples of medicinal plants with antiviral activity against poliovirus are Dianella longifolia var. grandis (Liliaceae, roots) and Ptero-caulon sphacelatum. (Asteraceae, green aerial parts). Furthermore, extracts from Euphorbia australis Boiss. (Euphorbiaceae) and Scaevola spinesces R. Br. (Goodeniaceae) show activity against human cytomegalovirus. Plant extracts against Ross River virus include Eremophila latrobei F. Muell. ssp.
glabra (L.S. Smith) Chinn. (Myoporaceae) and Pittosporum phylliraeoides DC. var. microcarpa S. Moore (Pittosporaceae).52
6.3.5. Medicinal plants of Europe
Medicinal plants of Europe are listed in the “European Pharmacopoeia,”53
“German Pharmacopoeia”54 and “British Pharmacopoeia.”55 The section below gives examples of medicinal plants from Italy and Spain.
Biodiversity of Medicinal Plants 27
The juice of Chelidonium majus L. (Papaveraceae) is used in Italy for the treatment of warts. It is topically applied. The aerial parts of Echium italicum L. (Boraginaceae) are applied to treat abdominal pains. The buds and flowers of Crocus napolitanus (Liliaceae) are used as an external poultice for the prevention of lice and act as an antiseptic. The bulbs of Lilium can-didum L. (Liliaceae) are useful for the treatment of shingles (Herpes zoster).
The whole of Parmelia sp. Ach. (Parmeliaceae) is used as a cholagogue.56 Phlomis lychnitis L. (Lamioideae) is a Spanish plant. The decoction of this plant is used against hemorrhoids. Quercus suber L. (Fagaceae) can be used for the disinfection of wounds and as vulnerary. Furthermore, Marru-bium vulgare L. (Lamiaceae) can be used for the treatment of asthma. As a final example, Leuzea conifera (L.) DC. (Asteraceae) should be mentioned:
its decoction is applied to treat gastritis and colitis.57